
Class SFZ^a. 

Book .tAk^. 

Copyright N^_A3_01. 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSrr 



Dairy Farming 



BY 



JOHN MICHELS, B. S. A., M. S. 

Professor of Animal Husbandry and Dairying 

IN THE State Agricultural College 

OF South Carolina 

AUTHOR OF 

CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



ILLUSTRATED 



CLEMSON COLLEGE, SOUTH CAROLINA 
Published by the Author 

1907 

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



h^ 



^v^ 



f\ 



^'A 



\^ 



fySRARVofCOWGRrsS. 

I JUl 20 90f 1 

CLASS Ct XXC: Nor 
COPY B. ' i 

„ I till ■! IIMIIIMI 



COPYRIGHT, BY 

JOHN MICHELS 

190/ 




PREFACE. 

In the preparation of this work, the endeavor has been 
to arrange in a concise and systematic form the essential 
facts relating to the science and practice of dairy farm- 
ing. It embodies the Author's twenty years' experience, 
both as a practical dairyman and as a student and teacher 
of dairy husbandry. Technical terms have been avoided 
as far as possible, in order that the book may not only 
meet the needs of the class-room, but also serve as a 
convenient and useful handbook for farmers not versed 
in the sciences. 

Acknowledgements are due the following parties for 
their kindness in offering the loan of electrotypes: 
Creamery Package Mfg. Co., D. H. Burrell & Co., Ameri- 
can Jersey Cattle Club, Guernsey Breeders' Association, 
Holstein-Friesian Breeders' Association, Ayrshire Breed- 
ers' Association, Drew Elevated Carrier Co., De Laval- 
Separator Co., Sharpies Separator Co., Empire Cream 
Separator Co., Vermont Farm Machine Co., and Star 
Milk Cooler Co. 

JOHN MICHELS. 
Clemson College, S. C, 

May, 1907. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PART I. THE DAIRY HERD. 

Page. 

Chapter I. Dairy Farming a Profitable Business 7 

Chapter II. Evolution of the Dairy Cow 9 

Chapter III. Selection of Dairy Cows 11 

Chapter IV. Selection of Dairy Sires 17 

Chapter V. Building Up a Dairy Herd 20 

Chapter VI. Breeds of Dairy Cattle 25 

Chapter VII. Feeding the Dairy Cow 33 

Chapter VIII. Silos and Silage 52 

Chapter IX. Method of Keeping Herd Records 60 

Chapter X. Milking 68 

Chapter XI. Herd Management 73 

Chapter XII. Rearing the Dairy Calf 82 

Chapter XIII. Dairy Barn and Milk House 86 

Chapter XIV. Handling Farm Ivlanure 101 

Chapter XV. Power on the Farm 106 

Chapter XVI. Diseases and Ailments of Dairy Cattle. . 110 

PART n. MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS. 

Chapter XVII. Milk 123 

Chapter XVIII. The Babcock Test 135 

Chapter XIX. Bacteria and Milk Fermentations 146 

Chapter XX. Sanitary Milk Production 155 

Chapter XXI. Farm Butter-Making 165 

Chapter XXII. Farm Cheese-Making 187 

Chapter XXIII. Marketing Dairy Products 193 

Chapter XXIV. Machine Milking 201 

Appendi.x 2)3 

Index 209 



PART I. 

THE DAIRY HERD. 



CHAPTER I. 

DAIRY FARMING A PROFITABLE BUSINESS. 

That dairy farming is a profitable business is fully at- 
tested by its unprecedented growth during the past 
decade and a half. No other branch of agriculture has 
ever witnessed such rapid development in a similar period 
of time. Its growth has not been confined to any par- 
ticular section or sections of the country, but has been 
noticeable in all sections. 

The profits that have prompted this rapid and general 
expansion of the dairy business have been derived from 
two sources : ( i ) direct profits realized from the sale of 
milk, cream, butter and cheese; (2) indirect profits ac- 
cruing from an increased fertility of the land and the con- 
sequent increased productiveness of the same. 

Direct Profits. It is pretty well conceded that in gen- 
eral dairy cows yield greater returns for feed consumed 
than either swine, sheep or beef animals. A good cow 
will yield not less than 300 pounds of butter a year, which, 
at 25 cents per pound, is worth $75. Adding to this the 
value of 6,000 pounds of skim milk at 20 cents per 100, 

7 



8 ■ DAIRY FARMING 

and $io as the value of the calf, we have a total income 
of $97 a year. Subtracting from this $50 as the average 
cost of the feed, we have $47 remaining to pay for the 
labor and interest on investments. 

Where good milk and cream markets are available the 
income from the sale of milk and cream may be actually 
double that from butter at 25 cents per pound. More- 
over, with cows of a higher productive capacity than that 
here considered, the profits would be more than propor- 
tionally increased. 

Indirect Profits. The marvelous growth of the dairy 
industry has in part been necessitated by the need of con- 
serving and increasing the fertility of lands that have 
been cultivated without due regard to maintaining soil 
fertility. The selling of raw products from the farm, 
such as hay and grains, has been a constant source of soil 
impoverishment. This method of robbing the soil of its 
natural plant food has made farming in many of the New 
England and Southern States well nigh impossible with- 
out the aid of commercial fertilizers. In some of these 
states as much as $7,000,000 is expended annually for 
these fertilizing materials. 

By feeding the raw materials of the farm to dairy cows, 
we are not only manufacturing high priced products as 
compared with the value of the raw material, but we are 
retaining upon the farm that valuable by-product, the 
manure, which contains about 75% of the fertilizing con- 
stituents originally present in the feed. Where only but- 
ter is sold, practically all of the fertilizing ingredients of 
the feed are recovered, since butter contains scarcely any 
fertilizing material. Even where cream is sold about 
95% of the fertilizing value of the feed is retained upon 
the farm. 



CHAPTER 11. 

EVOLUTION OF THE DAIRY COW. 

The dairy cow is one of the most useful as well as one 
of the most profitable of all our domestic animals. Her 
products not only supply an indispensable want in the 
human dietary, but they are also the source of much profit 
to her owner. 

Comparing the modern cow with her primitive ances- 
tors a most interesting and instructive evolution in her 
milk giving function is noted. In the wild or primitive 
state her milk production was confined to a short period 
following parturition and was barely sufficient for the 
support of the calf. In her present form the amount of 
milk necessary for the support of the calf constitutes but 
a small part of her total possible production and its secre- 
tion is almost incessant. 

Like the race horse, the dairy cow has been bred and 
handled for a specific purpose for a number of centuries. 
Continued specialization has resulted not only in an 
enormous increase of milk and butterfat production, but 
as a result of such increased production there has been 
created a specific conformation known as the dairy type. 

At no period in the development of the dairy cow have 
such great strides been made as in the past half a cen- 
tury. Indeed, the period of general and systematic im- 
provement in the common stock may be said to date from 
the invention of the Babcock test. Fifteen years ago the 
average butter production was approximately 125 pounds 

9 



10 DAIRY FARMING 

per cow. To-day the average production appoximates 
175 pounds per cow. 

There are hundreds of herds scattered over the 
country that average 300 pounds of butter per cow and 
many herds exceed even the 400 pound mark. Scores 
of individual cows could be mentioned that have reached 
the 600 and 700 pound mark, and the world's champion 
cow holds the phenomenal record of an even 1,000 pounds 
of butter in one year. 

Among the factors that have been instrumental in 
bringing about the remarkable evolution in the milk pro- 
ducing function of the cow, the following are the most 
important: (i) selection, or breeding only from the 
best milkers; (2) liberal and judicious feeding; (3) 
proper milking; (4) suitable environment, including con- 
ditions as to housing and sanitation; (5) good care and 
management. These factors will always continue the 
most important in the improvement of our modern herds, 
and will be discussed in the chapters which follow. 



CHAPTER III. 

SELECTION OF COWS. 

Success in dairying depends in a large measure upon 
one's ability to select the right animals in starting and 
building up the herd. Unless adapted by nature for 
dairy purposes, cows will remain unprofitable in spite of 
the best feed and management. The first lesson the 
dairyman has to learn, therefore, is to know how to dis- 
criminate between good cows and poor cows. The 
cardinal points to consider in the selection of a cow are: 
(i) butterfat production; (2) type; (3) purity of breed- 
ing; (4) pedigree; and (5) health. 

BUTTERFAT PRODUCTION. 

The best, guide in the selection of cows is the actual 
butterfat record as determined by a pair of scales and a 
Babcock tester. It is not enough to simply know the 
quantity of milk yielded by a cow ; one must also know 
its fat content, for it is this that measures the value of 
milk for commercial uses as well as for butter and cheese 
production. 

The method of determining the butterfat production 
of cows is treated in detail in chapter IX. 

CONFORMATION OR TYPE. 

All dairy experts recognize a definite type as associated 
with economical milk production. The judge in the 
show ring bases his judgment entirely upon type or con- 

11 



12 



DAIRY FARMING 



formation. While there still may be differences of opin- 
ion among breeders as to minor points, these are really 
of little consequence. The points that go to make up 
the ideal type will be treated under six heads : ( i ) dairy 
temperament; (2) feeding capacity; (3) constitution; 
(4) milk organs; (5) quality; and (6) pelvic region. 




Fig. 1. — Points of a Dairy Cow. 
1. Muzzle. 2. Forehead. 3. Neck. 4. Withers. 5. Back. 6. Loins. 
7. Hip. 8. Pelvic arch. 9. Rump. 10. Pin bone. II. Shoulder. 12. Chest. 
18. Heart Girth. 14. Side. 15. Belly. 16. Flank. 17. Milk well. 18. Milk 
vein. 19. Fore udder. 20. Udder. 21. Teats. 22. Hind udder. 23. Thigh. 

Dairy Temperament. This is indicated by a rather 
spare, angular form ; large, bright, expressive eyes, far 
apart and placid ; a rather long, clean face slightly dished ; 
forehead wide and rather long; wide juncture of head 
and neck ; a large, straight, prominent backbone with 
well defined spinal processes ; ribs and vertebrae wide 
apart ; sharp withers ; spare, incurving thighs ; and a high 
arching flank : all of which indicates strong nerve develop- 
ment, or power to do work. 

Feeding Capacity. This is indicated by a long, broad, 
deep, capacious barrel, showing well sprung ribs diverging 
toward the rear; a broad muzzle; and a strong jaw. 



THE DAIRY HERD 13 

Constitution. This is indicated by large, bright, clear 
eyes ; large, open nostrils ; wide, deep chest ; strong navel 
development ; strong abdominal walls ; absence of ex- 
treme refinement ; and a soft, pliable skin with plenty of 
secretion : all of which indicates strength and vitality. 

A heavy milker is one of the hardest worked of all 
animals, and unless possessed of a strong constitution, 
she can never do her maximum work and an early break- 
down may be expected. 

Milk Organs. These include a large, evenly quartered, 
elastic udder, running well forward and well up behind ; 
large, tortuous milk veins running well forward and 
branched ; numerous, large, capacious milk wells ; and 
medium sized teats, squarely placed, and far apart. 

Large, Hcshy udders are undesirable, as they possess a 
relatively small milk elaborating, capacity, and are more 
subject to disorders than moderately large, elastic udders. 

The milk veins, which carry the blood away from the 
udder, are deserving of careful attention. When the ori- 
fices (milk wells) through which they enter the body are 
large, the size of the milk veins may be taken as a fair 
indication of the amount of blood they carry. 

A large flow of blood away from the udder presup- 
poses a large flow into it, and since milk is secreted from 
the blood, the quantity which flows through the veins 
must be some indication of milk producing capacity. 

Quality. This is indicated by a soft, oily, pliable skin, 
of medium thickness ; short, soft silky hair ; yellow secre- 
tion in the ears ; fine textured bone ; rather small and 
refined ears and horns ; yellowish wax at the base of the 
horns ; and a general absence of coarseness in any part. 

Pelvic Region. This should be large to afford room 
for the calf, especially during its delivery. A good pelvic 



14 DAIRY FARMING 

region is indicated by a high, long, broad rump, broad 
hips and loins, and good width between the pin bones. 

Additional observations on type should be directed 
to the following: Shoulder, free from flesh and rather 
sharp at the withers ; tail, long and refined ; hocks, clean, 
well apart, and pointing straight backward, giving roomi- 
ness for the udder ; front legs, straight and well apart, 
with toes pointing directly forward. 

The escutcheon, which refers to the rear portion of the 
animal where the hair turns up, was the subject of con- 
siderable study by a Frenchman named Quenon, who 
regarded the size and shape of it as the chief indication 
of merit in dairy cows. At the present time, however, 
very little importance is attached to this point. 

PURITY OF BREEDING. 

Selection is based upon the law that "like produces 
like." According to this law the characters of the par- 
ents are transmitted to the offspring with a greater or 
less degree of certainty. The purer the breeding of the 
parents the greater the certainty of such transmission. 
Thus, for example, one can figure with much certainty 
that the progeny of pure-bred parents of the same breed 
will resemble its parents in all essential characteristics. 
On the other hand, there is no certainty whatever that the 
off -spring of parents of promiscuous breeding will resem- 
ble its parents, either in important or unimportant particu- 
lars. It may be like them or it may be totally unlike them. 

It is the long period of breeding along one line without 
admixture of foreign blood that gives the pure-bred 
animal the superior power of transmitting its qualities to 
its offspring, a power which is known as prepotency. In 
the building up of a dairy herd it is of the highest im- 



THE DAIRY HERD 15 

portance to have animals which transmit their quahties 
to their offspring with a high degree of certainty, and it 
is for this reason that pure-bred animals are so much pre- 
ferred to those of promiscuous breeding. 

PEDIGREE. 

A pedigree is a recorded statement of the ancestry of 
an animal. It is furnished in many cases simply as a 
guarantee of purity of breeding. Its real value, however, 
is determined by the merit of the animals which it repre- 
sents. A 300 pound butter cow with an unbroken list of 
noted dairy performers back of her is much to be pre- 
ferred to a 300 pound cow among whose ancestors some 
inferior individuals are found, and especially if the infer- 
ior individuals are near ancestors. 

While, generally, pedigreed animals are much to be 
preferred to those of promiscuous breeding, it by no 
means follows that all pedigreed animals are desirable. 
Far from it. There probably are now-a-days as many poor 
pedigreed dairy animals as good ones. "Scrubs" arc 
found among pedigreed cows just as they are found 
among common or native cows, though of course far 
less frequently. 

The reason of the existence of inferior individuals 
among pure-bred dairy animals is found in the fact that 
eligibility to registration in most cases is not based upon 
production or individual excellence, but upon purity of 
breeding. This fact has made it possible for many 
animals to enter the herd register which, by nature, were 
fit only for the shambles. In the purchase of pure-bred 
stock, therefore, no judicious selection can be made from 
a mere list of names of individuals, no matter how long 
this list is or how "high sounding" the names it contains 



16 DAIRY FARMING 

may be. One must know the production and individual 
excellence of the animals represented in the pedigree. 
The greatest stress should be laid upon the near or 
immediate ancestry of the animal under consideration. 

Fortunately there is what is known as an advanced 
registry, or register of merit, the basis of admission to 
which, in addition to pure breeding, is the merit of the 
individuals as dairy performers. It is much to be hoped 
that this method of registration will soon replace entirely 
the common method whose sole requisite for registration 
is purity of breeding. 

HEALTH OF ANIMALS. 

The prevalence of tuberculosis, contagious abortion, 
and other diseases, makes it imperative to make the matter 
of health an important consideration in the selection of 
dairy animals. Indeed diseased animals, no matter how 
valuable in other respects, should be rigidly excluded from 
the htrd. 

It is the height of folly to select dairy animals without 
making rigid inquiry as to their freedom from tuber- 
culosis and contagious abortion. Yet there are many wlio 
do not even inquire about these and other diseases, much 
less make investigation such, for example, as a tuber- 
culin test. 



CHAPTER IV. 

SELECTION OF DAIRY SIRES. 

The importance of the dairy sire is recognized in the 
expression, "The bull is half the herd." Usually, how- 
ever, the bull is more than half the herd, either for good 
or bad. In the case of common or grade cows, for 
example, the purc-brcd bull may count for three-quarters 
or more of the herd, by reason of his greater prepotency. 
To so great an extent does the bull determine the improve- 
ment or deterioration of the herd as to call for the utmost 
caution in his selection, which should be based upon the 
following: (i) purity of breeding; (2) pedigree; (3) 
tj^pe; (4) prepotency; and (5) health. 

Purity of Breeding. Under no circumstances should 
anything but pure-bred sires be used. The value of purity 
of breeding has already been discussed under the selection 
of the dairy cow. It should be understood, however, 
that purity of breeding is of greater consequence in bulls 
than in cows, for the reason that improvement in the herd 
is usually expected to be brought about through the dairy 
sire. 

Pedigree. In the case of a dairy bull, especially a 
young bull, his chief value is determined by the perform- 
ance of his ancestry. The points of greatest importance 
to consider in his pedigree are the following: (i) the 
merit of his mother and his sire's mother; (2) the merit 
of the daughters of his sire and grand sire; (3) the 
value of the daughters of his dam and his grand-dam ; 
^ 17 



18 DAIRY FARMING 

(4) the value of his sisters, if he has any; and (5) the 
vakie of his own progeny, if he has any. 

The further back consecutively good records can be 
traced the more valuable the animal. It should always 
be remembered, however, that near ancestors count for 
a great deal more than those more remotely related. 

Type. The external qualities of a good sire are indi- 
cated by a masculine head and neck; bright, prominent 
eyes, far apart; a strong, sinewy jaw; broad muzzle; 
wide open nostrils ; deep, broad chest ; deep, capacious 
barrel ; soft, loose, oily hide, of medium thickness ; clean 
bone ; large rudimentary teats, squarely placed and far 
apart ; and a general spareness of flesh, especially in the 
region of the shoulders, thighs, and hips. Indeed, from 
the shoulders backward, the dairy bull should have the 
same general outline as that possessed by the dairy cow. 
He should have a strong, resolute appearance and an 
active style, showing that abundance of vigor so neces- 
sary in a good breeder. 

Prepotency. It has already been stated that this term 
signifies the power which an animal possesses of trans- 
mitting its own qualities to its offspring. The possession 
of this power is of the highest importance in a dairy bull, 
for it matters little how good a pedigree or how fine an 
individuality he may have, if he lacks in the power of 
transmission he is a failure. Prepotency in an animal 
increases with the purity and closeness of breeding, and 
is indicated to some extent by a strong, resolute, vigorous 
appearance, reflecting a strong constitution and an 
abundance of nerve development. 

The full extent, however, to which a sire is prepotent 
can be determined with certainty only from his offspring. 



THE DAIRY HERD 19 

It is for this reason that a middle-aged bull is so much 
more desirable than a young, untried bull. 

A bull with descendants is always the safest animal 
for the purchaser to buy. Nothing can speak more for a 
bull than the satisfactory performance of his offspring. 

Health. Everything that has been said with reference 
to health in the selection of cows (p. i6) applies with 
equal force to dairy sires. 



CHAPTER V. 

BUILDING UP A DAIRY HE;RD. 

I. PRINCIPLES INVOLVED. 
II. STARTING THE HERD. 
III. BI'.EEDING UP THE HERD. 

I. PRINCIPLES INVOLVED. 

Underlying Law. The success in building- up a dairy 
herd depends to a great extent upon one's abihty to select 
individuals with reference to the points considered in the 
preceding two chapters ; that is, the ability to make a 
judicious selection of both males and females. To em- 
phasize more fully the importance of rigid selection it 
should be remembered that all selection is based upon 
the law that "like produces like," or that the offspring 
will be like the parents. The essence of this law is that 
good milkers will produce good milkers and poor milkers 
will produce poor milkers. 

The uniformity with which this law operates is depend- 
ent upon three things : ( i ) purity of breeding ; (2) close- 
ness of blood relationship; and (3) similarity of parents. 

Purity of Breeding. The purer the breeding the 
greater the certainty with which animals will transmit 
their own characteristics to their offspring. See p. 14. 

Closeness of Blood Relationship. The characters of 
parents of the same strain will reappear in the progeny 
with greater regularity than those of parents of different 
strains in the same breed. This fact is recognized in 
in-and-in breeding, which is an attempt to secure and 

20 



THE DAIRY HERD 21 

speedily fix desirable characters by close breeding. In- 
and-in breeding can be practiced with success, however, 
only in the hands of skilled breeders. 

In the case of crossing one breed upon another as, for 
example, a Holstein-Friesian upon a Jersey, it is- often 
mistakenly supposed that the progeny of such a cross 
partakes equally of the characters of both parents. This 
may occur in some instances, but more often the offspring 
will resemble either one parent or the other, or neither. 
But even where the offspring does partake equally of the 
characters of both parents, such a cross is undesirable 
because the offspring is not capable of transmitting its 
characteristics with any degree of certainty. In the hands 
of the average dairyman transmission in crossing is uncer- 
tain and unsatisfactory, and for this reason crossing 
should not be attempted. 

When a cow of nondescript or promiscuous breeding is 
bred to a pure-bred sire, the progeny will largely partake 
of the characters of the sire, by reason of his greater 
prepotency. With what degree of regularity and to what 
extent this occurs depends upon the degree of prepotency. 
The offspring of a highly prepotent sire and a common or 
native cow will take on nearly all the essential character- 
istics of the sire. In such a case it is plainly seen that the 
sire counts for a great deal more than half the herd. 

In the case of grade cows the influence of the pure- 
bred bull becomes less the closer the grade approaches 
purity of blood. But only in the case where the cows are 
pure-bred, or more strictly of equal prepotency with the 
bull, can it be said that the bull is only half the herd. 

Similarity of Parents. In mating animals it should 
always be remembered that the greater the similarity of all 
their characteristics the greater the certainty of trans- 



22 DAIRY FARMING 

mission. Where animals of great extremes of size, con- 
formation, function, disposition, or nervous organization, 
are mated, somewhat the same results may be looked for 
that are obtained in crossing animals of different breeds. 
Mating animals of highly dissimilar characteristics is 
spoken of as violent mating and should be avoided. 
Where there is much similarity in the parents there is 
usually a satisfactory transmission of qualities and the 
mating is often referred to as good "nicking." 

II. STARTING THE HERD. 

Grade Cows and Pure=bred Sires. With the average 
farmer, the cheapest and most satisfactory way of start- 
ing a dairy herd is to select as foundation stock good 
grade cows and a pure-bred bull of one of the strictly 
dairy breeds. The grading up will be most rapid when 
the predominant blood in the grades corresponds with the 
blood of the sire. 

A foundation of this kind, of course, does not produce 
stock that can be registered, but by continuing the use of 
good, pure-bred bulls of the same blood, stock is soon 
obtained which, so far as milk and butter production is 
concerned, very closely approaches in value that of pure 
breeding. 

Pure=Bred Cows and Sires. To start with a pure- 
bred herd is practically beyond the means of the ma- 
jority of farmers. Furthermore, there is an objection 
to placing well-cared-for, pure-bred cows under aver- 
age conditions as to feed, care, and management, be- 
cause under any such change the attainment of satis- 
factory results would be practically impossible. Where 
there is a gradual infusion of pure blood, as in the 
case of grading up a herd with pure-bred sires the 



THE DAIRY HERD 23 

new blood is gradually accustomed to the change of 
environment and the herdsman is given the necessary 
time to change his methods to meet the requirements of 
pure-bred cattle. 

Where the dairyman understands the management 
of pure-bred stock and has the means with which to 
purchase the right kind, a pure-bred herd may be started 
to good advantage. 

One of the chief dangers in starting with a pure- 
bred herd is the lack of funds to procure the right sort 
of animals. Instead of purchasing a pure-bred bull and 
a number of pure-bred cows of common merit, it is better 
policy to buy relatively cheap, grade cows, and to add the 
money thus saved to that originally set aside for the bull. 
This extra money is likely to be the means of securing a 
bull of outstanding merit. 

HI. BREEDING UP THE HERD. 

Importance of Sire. Whether the cows be grades or 
pure-breds, it is of the highest importance in building up 
a dairy herd to secure a pure-bred bull of outstanding 
dairy merit. Unless the bull is descended from good milk- 
ers it is folly to expect him to produce good milkers, no 
matter how fine or ideal he may be as an individual. 

It is, furthermore, of importance to remember that a 
herd cannot be successfully built up unless the bulls that 
are successively used belong to the same breed. If the 
grading up is begun with a Jersey bull the process must 
be continued uninterruptedly by the use of Jersey blood. 

In the selection of a herd bull the points discussed in 
the preceding chapter should be carefully considered. 

Selecting the Best Calves. With a first-class bull at 
the head of the herd, rapid improvement is effected by 



24 DAIRY FARMING 

selecting and retaining calves from only the best milkers, 
at the same time culling out those cows whose records 
have not been satisfactory. This work cannot be done to 
best advantage unless records are kept of the quantity 
and quality of milk from each cow for a whole lactation 
period, as discussed in chapter IX. 

Buying Cows. Where all of the cows in the founda- 
tion stock are grades, none of the calves, of course, can 
be registered. It is desirable, therefore, to add to the 
herd from time to time, as means permit, some good 
pure-bred cows of the same blood as the bulls that have 
been used. This has the advantage of enabling the owner 
to dispose of his calves to better advantage. 

The purchase of cows, however, is always attended with 
the danger of introducing contagious diseases into the 
herd, especially tuberculosis and contagious abortion. 
For this reason the purchasing of cows should be carried 
on in a limited way only. It is, of course, always in order 
to buy cows when the object is to add to the herd pure- 
bred individuals of exceptional dairy merit. But the 
practice of buying cows should never be carried to the 
point of making it the principal means of replenishing the 
herd, especially since the latter can be accomplished 
much more satisfactorily by raising the calves from the 
best cows. 



CHAPTER VI. 

BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE. 
JERSEY CATTLE. 

The native home of this breed is the Island of Jersey, 
situated otf the coast of France, and comprising 28,717 




26 



DAIRY FARMING 



acres. The climate is very mild and healthful, and the 
soil is very productive. Here the Jersey cattle have been 
bred pure for a number of centuries. 




Characteristics. The color of Jerseys is usually some 
shade of fawn. Cream, dun and yellow are common, and 
these are frequently mixed with white. In form Jerseys 



THE DAIRY HERD 



27 



are spare, possessing a rather large barrel, a refined head 
and neck, and fine, clean-cut limbs. In size they are small 
to medium, the average weight of cows being probably 
somewhat less than 900 pounds. The quantity of milk 
produced by Jerseys is, as a rule, not very large, but the 
milk is very rich, making them excellent butter producers. 
The color of the milk and butter is a pleasing, rich yellow. 

GUERNSEY CATTLE. 

The native home of this breed is the Island of Guern- 
sey, situated near the Island of Jersey, and, like it, is one 




Fig. 4. — Typical Guernsey Bull. Benjamin. 

of the group of islands known as the Channel Islands. In 
size the Island of Guernsey ranks next to that of Jersey. 
Its climate is very mild and healthful and the soil is pro- 



28 



DAIRY FARMING 



ductive. Guernsey cattle have been bred pure for a long 
period of time. 

Characteristics. Guernsey cattle are larger, stronger 
in frame and constitution, and in general more rugged 
than Jerseys. A noted characteristic of this breed is the 
very rich, yellow color of the milk and skin. Their pre- 
dominant color is a reddish fawn, with more or less white 




Fig. 5.— Typical Guernsey Cow. Glenwood Girl 6th. 

markings. Colors bordering on a yellowish or brownish 
fawn with white markings, are also common. The 
cows average probably somewhat more than i,ooo pounds 
in weight. They average a fairly large yield of milk, 
which is practically as rich as that produced by Jerseys. 
Guernseys are also noted for their quiet, gentle disposi- 
tion. 



THE DAIRY HERD 



29 



HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE. 

The native home of this breed is Holland, where it 
has existed for many centuries. The low. level, rich lands 
reclaimed from the sea, furnish an abundance of erazinir 




30 



DAIRY FARMING 



and have given rise to a large breed of cattle. The winters 
of Holland are rather cold but not severe. 

Characteristics. The Holstein-Friesian cattle are 
white and black in color, have large, strong frames, and 




easily stand at the head in size and quantity of milk 
yielded. The average weight of the cows approxi- 
mates 1 ,300 pounds. While noted for their phenomenal 
milk yields, the milk averages rather low in per cent of 



THLi DAIRY HERD 



31 



butterfat, being lower than that of any other dah-y breed. 
The udders and milk veins in this breed are conspicuously 
large. The shoulders are rather prominent and the hind 
quarters as a rule, are rather thick and straight. 

AYRSHIRE CATTLE. 

The native home of this breed is Ayr county, Scot- 
land, from which place the breed derives its name. The 




pastures are good, but the climate is rather severe and 
rough, giving this breed a high degree of hardiness. 



32 



DAIRY FARMING 



Characteristics. The Ayrshire cattle are a rather 
hardy, rugged breed, of medium size, the average weight 
being about i,ooo pounds. They have a deep capacious 
barrel, and the hind quarters are inclined to be fleshy. 
In color they may be red, white, or brown, or a mixture of 
these, each color being well defined. The cows give a 
good yield of milk containing an average per cent of 
bitterfat. Their udders possess a high state of perfection. 



K 


■ 'y ' 




1 


^^^^. if^^^^HH 


■■. '''•" '1 



CHAPTER VII. 

I^EEDING THE DAIRY COW. 

I. PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 
II. PRACTICE OF FEEDING. 
III. FEEDING TABLES. 

I. PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 

No phase of the dairy industry has received so much 
attention in recent years as that relating to the principles 
and practice of feeding". We have come to learn that 
certain underlying principles must be observed if any- 
thing like a full measure of success is to be achieved. 
The first lesson of the student in stock feeding concerns 
itself with the following particulars regarding feeds: (i) 
composition; (2) digestibility; (3) succulence and pal- 
atability; (4) proportion of nitrogenous and non-nitro- 
genous nutriisnts ; (5) proportion of roughage* and con- 
centratesf ; and (6) fertilizing constituents. 

Composition. A knowledge of the composition of 
feeds is necessary for two reasons : First, to enable the 
feeder to determine the relative value of the feeds at his 
disposal ; and secondly, to assist in determining what 
quantity of feed is necessary to supply the required 
amount of nutrients. 

In studying the composition of feeds we must first of 
all familiarize ourselves with three important groups of 



♦Roughage includes the coarser and less nutritious feeds, such as hay, 
straw, corn fodder, corn silage, etc. 

tConcentrates include the more nutritious feeds, such as corn, wheat bran, 
cotton seed meal, etc. 

3 33 



34 



DAIRY FARMING 



nutrients found in all feed stuffs ; namely, protein, car- 
bohydrates and ether extract. 

Protein is the nitrogenous part of feeds and is by far 
the most valuable of the different groups of nutrients. 
Its characteristic element is nitrogen. The white of egg 
is almost pure protein. Cottonseed meal and linseed 
meal are very rich in protein, and so are leguminous hays, 
such as clover, alfalfa and cowpea hay. 

Carbohydrates contain no nitrogen but are made up 
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, containing the latter 
two elements in the proportion to form water. Sugar and 
starch are almost pure carbohydrates. Crude fiber is 
another carbohydrate, which constitutes the woody, fibrous 
part of plants. 

Ether extract is the part of feeds extracted by means 
of ether, and consists largely of fats or oils. This group 
of nutrients bears a close similarity to carbohydrates, 
both in composition and in function ; but owing to its 
higher carbon content, its fuel value is 2.4 times that of 
carbohydrates. Cotton seed and flax seed are very rich 
in ether extract. 

Dry matter, as the term signifies, is the feed minus its 
water. 

The variation in nutrients in different feeds is illus- 
trated in the following table : 

TABLE I. Showing variation in nutrients in different 
feeds. 





Dry 
maiter in 
100 pounds. 


Total nu 


rients in 103 pounds. 


Feed. 


Protein. 
Lbs. 


Carbo- 
hydrates. 
Lbs. 


Ether 

extiact. 

Lbs. 


Wheat bran 


88.1 
91.8 
89.4 
20.9 

59 5 

84.7 


15.4 
42.3 
10.3 
1.7 
3.8 
12 3 


62.9 
29.2 
72.6 
17.0 
52.2 
62.9 


4.0 


Cottonseed meal 


13.1 


Corn 


6.0 


Corn silage 


0.8 


Corn stover 


1.1 


Clover hay ( 1 ed ) 


3.3 



THE DAIRY HERD 



35 



The table shows that feeds differ very widely in the 
amount of nutrients they contain, especially in protein, 
the most valuable portion of feeds. 

Digestibility. While the total nutrients give some 
idea as to the relative value of different feeds, it is of far 
greater importance to know the total digestible nutrients 
as determined by actual digestion experiments with 
animals. That feeds differ widely in degree of digest- 
ibility is shown in the following table which contains the 
same list of feeds given in Table I. 



TABLE II. Showing variation in the digestibility 
lifl"erent feeds. 



of 





Dry 
matter in 
100 pounds. 


Total digestible nutrients in 
100 pounds. 


Feed. 


Protein. 
Lbs. 


Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Lbs. 


Ether 
extract. 

Lbs. 


Wheat bran 


88.1 
91.8 
89.1 
20.9 
59.5 
84.7 


12.2 
37 2 
7.9 
0.9 
1.7 
6.8 


39.2 
16.9 
66.7 
11.3 
32.4 
35.8 


2 7 


Cottonseed meal 


12 2 


Corn 


4 3 


Corn silage 


7 


Corn stover 

Clover hay ( red ) 


0.7 
1.7 



Comparing this table with Table I, we note that the 
digestibility of the protein, for example, in corn stover, 
clover hay and cottonseed meal is 44%, 55% and 
88% respectively. These figures suffice to show the need 
of knowing, not so much the total nutrients, as the total 
digestible nutrients in feed stuffs. 

Succulence and Palatability. The amount of digest- 
ible nutrients does not always measure the feeding value 



36 ■ DAIRY FARMING 

of feed stuffs. Palatability must also be considered. 
Moreover, experience has amply demonstrated that for 
best results in milk production, a certain amount of suc- 
culent feed must be fed as a part of the ration. Corn 
silage, which is so highly prized by dairymen, probably 
owes its high rank as a dairy feed nearly as much to its 
succulence and palatability as to the nutrients which it 
contains. 

Proportion of Nitrogenous to Non=Nitrogenous 
Nutrients. In the production of milk, only the protein 
or nitrogenous part of the feed can be utilized for the 
production of the protein or nitrogenous part of the milk. 
The non-nitrogenous constituents of the milk are largely, 
if not entirely, produced from the non-nitrogenous con- 
stituents of the feed, namely, the carbohydrates and ether 
extract. 

From this it must be obvious that the best results in 
feeding can be obtained only from a proper balancing of 
the nutrients fed. Moreover, since the different nutrients 
are largely to be converted into milk, it is evident also 
that the quantity which can be advantageously fed must 
be gauged by the quantity and quality of milk produced. 
Hence feeders have come to adopt what is known as 
balanced rations or feeding standards. 

Feeding Standards. These refer to the amount of 
digestible nutrients required per 1,000 pounds of live 
weight in twenty-four hours. They recognize that the 
nutrients fed must be in proportion to the quantity and 
quality of milk yielded. This is shown by the Wolff- 
Lehman standards presented in the following table: 



THE DAIRY HERD 



37 



TABLE III. Showing Wolff-Lehman feeding stand- 
ards. 





Daily milk 

yield. 
Average 
quality. 

Lbs. 


Dry 
matter. 

Lbs. 


Digestible nutrients per 1,000 
pounds live weight. 


Ration. 


Protein. 
Lbs. 


Carbo- 
hydraies 

Lbs. 


Ether 
extract. 

Lbs. 


No. 1 


11.0 
]6.6 
22.0 
27.5 


25 
27 
2J 
32 


1.6 

2.0 
2.5 
3.3 


10.0 
11.0 
13.0 
13.0 


0.3 


No. 2 


0.4 


Nu. 3 


0.5 


No.4 


0.8 







The standard that has generally been used as a guide 
by feeders is that for ration No. 3. Researches during 
recent years have shown, however, that the Wolff-Leh- 
man standard calls for too much protein. These re- 
searches make it quite clear that the amount of protein 
required for 22 pounds of average quality milk is 
nearer two pounds than two and a half pounds, and until 
the matter is definitely settled, it may be well to adopt 
two and one-fourth pounds of protein as the standard 
for the milk yield referred to. 

Feeding Standards as Guides. Standards for bal- 
anced rations should always be used with considerable 
flexibility. They should be looked upon only as guides 
and as such are exceedingly useful. Every practical 
feeder knows that the influence of individuality counts for 
much in the feeding of dairy cattle. A ration that may be 
satisfactory for one cow may not be suited to another. 

We have also to consider the source of the nutrients. 
It is known that the digestible nutrients in coarse feeds 
yield smaller returns, pound for pound, than those in 



38 DAIRY FARMING 

grains. Then again the matter of proportioning the 
quantity of nutrients to the weight of the animal can at 
best give only approximate results. The actual milk and 
butterfat production must always remain the principal 
factor in determining the quantity of nutrients required 
by the dairy cow. 

Calculating Rations. By a ration is meant the amount 
of feed required by an animal in twenty-four hours. 
The method of compounding rations consists in selecting 
from the feeds at our disposal such quantities as will con- 
tain the amount of nutrients called for by the standard. 
To illustrate, let us make up a ration for a cow yielding 
daily 22 pounds of milk of average quality, using the 
Wolff-Lehman standard (p. 37). The feeds at our dis- 
posal are wheat bran, cottonseed meal, corn meal, corn 
silage, corn stover and clover hay. 

By a number of trial calculations we find that the 
required nutrients are obtained by selecting 9 lbs. of 
wheat bran, 4 lbs. of corn, i lb. of cottonseed meal, 5 lbs. 
of corn stover, 5 lbs. of clover hay and 30 lbs. of corn 
silage. The calculation is made from Table II (p. 35) in 
the manner shown below : 

Amt. in 

100 lbs. 

Protein in 9 lbs. bran = 12.2 x .09 = 1.098 lbs. 

Protein in 1 lb. cotton seed meal = 37.2 x .01 = 0.372 lbs. 

Protein in 4 lbs. corn = 7.9 x .04 = 0.316 lbs. 

Protein in 30 lbs. corn silage = 0.9 x .30 = 0.270 lbs. 

Protein in 5 lbs. corn stover = 1.7 x .05 = 0.085 lbs. 

Protein in 5 lbs. clover hay = 6.8 x .05 = 0.340 lbs. 



Total protein = 2.481 lbs. 
Standard = 2.50 lbs. 



THE DAIRY HERD .39 

Amt. in 

100 lbs. 

Carbohydrates in & lbs. bran = 39.2 x .09 = 3.528 lbs. 

Carbohydrates in 1 lb. c. s. meal = 16.9 x .01 = 0.169 lbs. 

Carbohydrates in 4 lbs. corn = 66.7 x .04 =^ 2.668 lbs. 

Carbohydrates in 30 lbs. corn silage = 11.3 x .30 == 3.390 lbs. 

Carbohydrates in 5 lbs. corn stover == 32.4 x .05 == 1.620 lbs. 

Carbohydrates in 5 lbs. clover hay = 35.8 x .05 = 1.790 lbs. 



Total carbohydrates =13.165 lbs. 

Standard =13.00 lbs. 

Amt. in 

100 lbs. 

Ether extract in 9 lbs. bran = 2.7 x .09 = 0.243 lbs. 

Ether extract in 1 lb. c. s. meal = 12.2 x .01 = 0.122 lbs. 

Ether extract in 4 lbs. corn = 4.3 x .04 = 0.172 lbs. 

Ether extract in 30 lbs. corn silage = 0.7 x .30 = 0.210 lbs. 

Ether extract in 5 lbs. corn stover = 0.7 x .05 = 0.035 lbs. 

Ether extract in 5 lbs. clover hay = 1.7 x .05 = 0.085 lbs. 



Total ether extract = 0.867 lbs. 
Standard = 0.50 lbs. 

To make the above calculation perfectly plain it should 
be noted that the table on page 35 says that 100 lbs. of 
bran contain 12.2 lbs. of protein. If 100 lbs. contain 12.2 
lbs., 9 lbs. of bran will contain nine hundredths of 12.2 
lbs. or .09 X 12.2, which equals 1.098 lbs. of protein. The 
method is the same in the remaining computations. 

Nutritive Ratio. In speaking of rations, the terms 
''wide" ration and "narrow" ration are frequently used. 
The terms refer to the proportion of nitrogenous to non- 
nitrogenous matter in the ration. This proportion is 
spoken of as the nutritive ratio, which is obtained by 
dividing the digestible carbohydrates plus 2.4 (heat 
equivalent of carbohydrates) times the digestible ether 



40 DAIRY FARMING 

extract, by the digestible protein. In the ration calculated 
above the nutritive ratio equals (13.17 + 2.4 x .87) -^- 
2.48 = 6.1 ; that is the nutritive ratio in this case is i :6.i. 

When the amount of nitrogenous matter is small as 
compared with the non-nitrogenous matter, the ration is 
said to be "wide." When the reverse is true, the ration 
is said to be "narrow." 

Proportion of Roughage and Concentrates. Accord- 
ing to our feeding standard, a cow yielding 22 pounds of 
milk requires a ration containing 16 pounds of digestible 
nutrients and a total of 29 pounds of dry matter (digest- 
ible and indigestible). This amount of dry matter means 
that the ration must have a fairly definite bulk. Where 
the ration contains a great deal of rich concentrates in 
proportion to roughage, it is apt to lack in bulk. On the 
other hand a ration containing a large proportion of corn 
stover, oat straw and similar roughage, is likely to make 
the ration so bulky as to make it impossible for a heavy 
producer to consume enough of it to obtain the required 
nutrients. 

In the ration calculated on page 38 the proportion of 
roughage and concentrates is about right. Under average 
conditions a cow yielding 22 pounds of milk should have 
a ration composed of about two-thirds roughage and one- 
third concentrates. For greater yields it is best, as a 
rule, to increase only the concentrates to meet the require- 
ments of the additional flow of milk, thus making the pro- 
portion of concentrates to roughage greater the larger 
the yield of milk. 

Fertilizing Constituents of Feed. These are nitro- 
gen, phosphoric acid, and potash. Feeds rich in these 
constituents will produce manure correspondingly rich 
in them. In the selection of feeds, therefore, some atten- 



THE DAIRY HERD 



41 



tion should be given to their manurial value, especially 
since feeds differ so widely in this respect. 

An illustration of the extent to which feeds differ in 
their fertilizing or manurial constituents is given in the 
following table, which shows the amount of nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid and potash contained in corn and cotton 
seed meal. The table also shows the value of these con- 
stituents, which was obtained by rating the nitrogen at 
15 cents per pound, and the phosphoric acid and potash 
at 4^2 cents per pound. 

TABLE IV. Showing fertilizing constituents in 
corn and cottonseed meal. 





Fertilizing constituents in one ton. 


Feed. 


Nitrogen. 
Lbs. 


Phos- 
phoric 

acid. 

Lbs. 


Potash. 
Lbs. 


Total 
value. 


Corn 


36.4 
135.8 


14.0 
57.6 


8.0 
17.4 


$6.45 


Cotton seed meal 


23.75 







The table shows that the fertilizing value of a ton of 
cottonseed meal exceeds that of a ton of corn by $17.30, 
an amount that certainly must appeal to the man who is 
dairying on a business basis. 



II. PRACTICE OF FEEDING. 

Frequency of Feeding. The main part of the ration 
should be supplied in two feeds ; one in the morning and 
the other in the late afternoon. It is desirable to feed 
some dry roughage at noon, especially when the roughage 
in the morning and evening consists of silage. The cow, 



42 DAIRY FARMING 

on account of her large store room, the paunch, is ca- 
pable of storing up a large quantity of feed and, therefore, 
does not require as many feeds as some other farm 
animals. 

Order of Feeding Concentrates and Roughage. As 
a rule it is best to feed the concentrates just previous to 
milking and the roughage immediately thereafter. The 
grain helps to attract the cows to their stalls, and, by feed- 
ing the roughage after milking, we avoid tainting the milk 
with undesirable odors when the roughage contains these. 
When corn silage, for example, is fed immediately before 
milking, its odor is always perceptible in the milk. When 
fed after milking, the odor is never detected. It is 
believed also that feeding the concentrates by themselves 
will result in a more thorough mixing of saliva with 
them and thus increase their digestibility. Furthermore, 
a great deal of dust can be avoided by feeding the rough- 
age after milking, particularly when the roughage con- 
sists of hay or dry fodder. 

A prevailing opinion that heavy concentrates will form 
an injurious, pasty mass in the cow's stomach does not 
seem to be well founded. When the concentrates are fed 
directly before milking and the roughage directly after, 
there will be sufficient mixing in the paunch before the 
contents pass into the stomach proper. The author for 
several years, has successfully followed the practice of 
feeding concentrates and roughage separately when the 
former consisted of as much as five pounds of cotton- 
seed meal per day. 

Feeding Before and After Calving. Toward the 
close of the lactation period, the grain ration should be 
gradually reduced, either because of the reduced flow of 
milk, or on account of the desirability of drying up the 



THE DAIRy HERD 43 

cow so that she may have a month's rest before calving. 
It should be remembered, however, that even while the 
cow goes dry she still requires nutritious feed to properly 
nourish the foetus within her. The requirements as to 
feed at this time call for plenty of succulent roughage, 
and some grain which is rich in ash and protein, at the 
same time laxative in character. 

If the cow is feeding on good pasture the grain may 
be entirely withheld a month previous to calving. Indeed, 
if pasture is luxurious, it is desirable to restrict the time 
during which she is allowed to graze lest she overfeed 
and invite milk fever. When no pasture is available, a 
ration consisting of corn silage, good hay and about four 
pounds of grain will answer very satisfactorily. A desir- 
able grain ration is made up of linseed meal, wheat bran 
and ground oats, using these feeds in the proportion of 
about one pound of linseed meal and one and a half 
pounds each of bran and oats. This ration not only sup- 
plies the proper nutrients for the development of the 
foetus, but owing to its laxativeness, keeps the cow in 
the best physical condition. 

A few days before and after calving the grain is pref- 
erably supplied in the form of a warm mash. Warm 
water should also be freely supplied at this time. Three 
to six days after calving the grain should be gradually 
increased until the maximum amount consistent with 
economical production has been supplied. 

If the cow has been properly nurtured previous to 
calving, she will have stored up a considerable amount of 
reserve material which she draws on immediately after 
calving, thus making a heavy grain ration at this time 
not only not desirable but entirely unnecessary. 

Feeding Silage. The cheapest and most satisfactory 



44 DAIRY FARMING 

roughage that can be produced upon most farms, is corn 
silage. Its succulence and palatability make it an ideal 
feed for milk production. This feed should be available 
upon the farm the larger portion of the year. In winter 
it takes the place of summer pasturage ; during the late 
summer and fall it is needed to supplement the shortage 
of pasturage which usually occurs about this time. 

An average cow in full flow of milk will consume 40 
pounds of silage daily to good advantage. This amount 
of silage combined with 8 or 10 pounds of dry fodder or 
hay makes a good combination of roughage for a dairy 
cow. 

Feeding Grain. It should be remembered that silage 
contains a large amount of water, and where this feed 
constitutes the main part of the roughage of the ration, 
a considerable amount of grain must be fed to supply the 
required nutrients of a heavy milk producer. The 
amount of concentrates to be fed is, of course, largely 
dependent upon the amount of milk and butterfat pro- 
duced by the cow. 

Water. An abvmdance of pure water is a prime neces- 
sity with a dairy cow. This is to be expected from the 
fact that milk is largely composed of water. Where cows 
have no access to flowing water, they should be watered 
regularly morning and night ; and during hot weather a 
third watering at noon is desirable. The fact that milk is 
composed so largely of water should emphasize the im- 
portance of supplying only pure water. We may reason- 
ably expect the same bad effect on the health of the cow 
and the flavor of the milk from stale, impure water which 
is noticeable from the feeding of stale, odoriferous feeds. 

Salt. Cows should have daily access to all the salt they 



THE DAIRY HERD AS 

care to lick. Either common granular salt or rock salt 
will answer the purpose satisfactorily. 

Feeding According to Flow. In the economical pro- 
duction of milk, it is absolutely essential to feed cows 
according to their productive capacity. Just what this 
productive capacity is can be determined only by keeping 
a careful account of the feed consumed and the milk and 
butterfat yielded by each cow individually. Such a 
record will soon show to what extent cows will profitably 
respond to the feed given them. 

Importance of Feeding a Full Ration. According to 
the German feeding standard, a cow weighing i,ooo 
pounds requires for body maintenance 0.7 pound of 
digestible protein, 8 pounds of digestible carbohydrates 
and 0.1 pound of digestible ether extract. This shows 
that about half the nutrients called for in a ration for an 
average milker are used to sustain the body so that it 
will neither gain nor lose in weight ; the other half being 
used to form milk. Returns for feed can, therefore, be 
expected only from about 50% of the total nutrients 
required by the cow. This means that a cow on a full 
ration will yield practically twice as much milk as she 
would on three-fourths of a ration. Yet there are thou- 
sands of dairymen who fail to supply the last quarter 
of a ration and thus bring ruin upon themselves and 
their business. 

III. TADLE GIVING COMPOSITION OV FEEDS. 

At the beginning, it was stated that a knowledge of the 
composition of feeds was necessary for two reasons : 
First, to enable the feeder to determine the relative value 
of the feeds at his disposal ; and second, to assist in deter- 
mining what quantity of feed is necessary to supply the 



46 



DAIRY FARMING 



required nutrients. To afford the feeder as wide a choice 
as possible, a long table of feeds is herewith presented, 
showing not only the digestible, organic nutrients, but 
also the fertilizing constituents. This table is taken from 
Henry's "Feeds and Feeding," by permission of the 
author. 

TABLE V. Average digestible nutrients and fertiliz- 
ing: constituents in American feeding stuffs. 



• 


S 

a§ 
&§. 

Q 
Lbs. 

89.1 
89.4 
88.7 
91.2 
89.3 
84.9 
90.9 
91.8 
89.6 
91.8 
94 8 


Digestible 

nutrients in 100 

pounds. 


Fertilizing 

constituents in 

1,000 pounds. 


Name of feed. 


d 

+^ 
o 

LbS' 

7.9 

7.8 

8.0 

8.8 

0.4 

4.4 

7.4 

25.8 

9.0 

11.4 

26.7 

7.5 

30.3 

18.7 

20.4 


O 
Lbs. 

66.7 
66.7 
66.2 
63.7 
52.5 
60.0 
59.8 
43.3 
61.2 
58.4 
38.8 
55.2 
35.3 
51.7 
48.4 


u O 

Lbs 

4.; 
4 ; 

7.( 
O.o 

2.ii 

4.(. 

11. ( 

6.2 

6.5 
12.4 

6 8 
4.5 

18.7 
8.8 


d 
be 

a 

Lbs. 
18.2 

16.5 
16.8 
18 6 
5.0 
14.1 
16.3 
60.3 
26.5 
22.4 
49.8 
16.3 
57.7 
36.3 
38.4 


o 
'u 

o 

fi . 

si '^ 
CM 

Lbs. 


i 

CS 

o 
CM 

Lbs. 


Concentrates. 

Corn, all analyses 

Dent corn 


7.0 


4.0 


Flint corn 






Sweet corn 






Corn cob 


.6 
6.7 
12.1 
3.3 
8.0 
7.0 
5.1 
9.8 


6 


Corn and cob meal 

Corn bran 


4.7 
6 8 


Gluten meal 

Germ meal 


0.5 

6 


Starch refuse 


5 2 


Grano-gluten 


1 5 


Hominy chops 


88.9 
91.9 
93.2 
92.2 


4 9 


Glucose meal 




Sugar meal 


4.1 
4.1 


3 


Gluten feed 


0.3 



THE DAIRY HERD 47 

Table V. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.-Cc«. 



Name of feed. 



Wheat 

High-grade flour 

Low-grade flour , 

Dark feeding flour , 

Wheat bran 

Wheat bran, spring wheat. , 
Wheat bran, winter wheat. . , 

Wheat shorts , 

Wheat middlings , 

Wheat screenings , 



Rye 

Rye bran.. . 
Rye shorts. 



Barley 

Malt sprouts.- 

Brewers' grains, wet. . 
Brewers grains, dried. 



Oats 

Oat meal 

Oat feed or shorts . 

Oat dust 

Oat hulls 



Rice 

Rice hulls. . 
Rice bran. . 
Rice polish. 



Buckwheat 

Buckwheat hulls 

Buckwheat bran 

Buckwheat shorts 

Buckwheat middlings. 



a 

Lbs. 



88.4 
88.4 
90.7 

89.1 
89.8 
24.3 
91.8 

89.0 
92.1 
92.3 
93.5 
90.6 

87.6 
91.8 
90.3 
90.0 

87.4 
86,8 
89.5 
9 
87.3 



Digestible 

nutrients m 100 

pounds. 



On 
Lbs 



10.2 
8.9 
8.2 

13 

12 

12 

12 

12.2 

12.8 
9.8 

9.9 
11.5 
11.9 

7 

18.6 

3.9 

15.7 

9.2 

11.5 

12.5 

8.9 

1.3 

4.8 
1.6 
5.3 
9.0 

7.7 

2.1 

7.4 

21.1 

22.0 



Lbs. 



69 

62 

62.7 

61.3 

39.2 

40.1 

37.1 

50.0 

53.0 

51.0 

67.6 
50.3 
45.1 

65.6 

37.1 

9.3 

36.3 

47.3 
52.1 
46.9 

38.4 
40.1 

72.2 
44.5 
45.1 
56.4 

49.2 
27.9 
30.4 
33.5 
33.4 



u O 

Sis 
w 

Lbs. 



1.7 
0.9 
0.9 
2 
2.7 
3.4 
2.6 
3.8 
3.4 
2.2 

1.1 
2.0 
1.6 

1.6 
1.7 
1.4 
5.1 

4.2 

5.9 
2.8 
5.1 
0.6 

0.3 
0.6 
7.3 
6.5 

1.8 
0.6 
1.9 
5 5 
5.4 



Fertilizing 

constiiuenis in 

1,000 pounds. 



'A 
Lbs. 



23.6 

18.9 
28.9 
31.8 
26.7 



28.2 
26.3 
24.4 

17.6 
23.2 

18.4 

15.1 
35.5 

8.9 
36.2 

20.6 
23.5 
17.2 
21.6 

5.2 

10.8 
5.8 
7.1 

19.7 

14.4 

4.9 
36.4 



42.8 



Oh 
Lbs. 



7.9 

2.2 

5.6 

21.4 

28.9 



13.5 

9.5 

11.7 

8.2 
22.8 
12.6 

7.9 
14 3 

3.1 
10.3 



8.2 

'e'.i 
"2.4 



1.8 
1.7 
2.9 

26.7 

4.4 

0.7 

17.8 



21.9 



Lbs 

5.0 

1.5 

3.5 

10.9 

16.1 



5.9 
6 3 

8.4 

5.4 
14.0 

8.1 

4.8 

16.3 

0.5 

0.9 

6.2 

b'M 

'b.2 

0.9 
1.4 
2.4 
7.1 

2.1 

5.2 
12.8 



11.4 



48 DAIRY FARMING 

Table V. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents- 6"^«. 



Name of feed. 



Sorghum seed. . . . 
Broom-corn seed. 

Kaffir corn 

Millet 



Flax seed 

Linseed meal, old process. . 
Linseed meal, new process. 

Cotton seed 

Cotton-seed meal 

Cotton-seed hulls 

Cocoanut meal 

Palm-nut meal 

Sunflower seed 

Sunflower-seed cakes 

Peanut meal 

Rape-seed meal 



Peas 

Soja (soy) bean. 

Cowpea 

Horse bean 



Roughage. 

Fodder corn. 

Fodder corn, green 

Fodder corn, field-cured. . 
Corn stover, field-cured. . . 

Fresh grass. 

Pasture grasses (mixed). 

Kentucky blue grass 

Timothy, different stages. 
Orchard grass, in bloom.. 

Redtop, in bloom 

Oat fodder 






Lbs 



^7.2 
85 

84.8 
86.0 



.6 



89.2 

85.2 
85 



20.7 
57.8 
59.6 



20.0 
34 

38 
27.0 
34.7 
37 



Digestible 

nutrit nis in 100 

pounds. 



CM 
Lbs. 



7.0 
7.4 
7.8 
8.9 

20.6 
29.3 
28.2 
12.5 
37.2 
0.3 
15.6 
16.0 
12.1 
31.2 
42.9 
25.2 

16.8 
29.6 
18.3 
22.4 



1.0 
2.5 
1.7 



Lbs. Lbs. 



52.1 

48.3 
57.1 
45.0 



2.5 
3.0 
1.2 
1.5 
2.1 
2.6 



51 

22.3 
54.2 
49.3 



11.6 
34.6 
32.4 



10.2 

19.8 

19.1 

11.4 

21 

18.9 



Fertilizing 

constituents in 

1,000 pounds. 



3.1 
2.9 
2 7 
3.2 

29.0 

7.0 

2.8 

17.3 

12.2 

1.7 

10.5 

9.0 

29.0 

12.8 

6 9 

7.5 

0.7 

14.4 

1.1 

1.2 



0.4 
1.2 

0.7 



0.5 

0.8 
6 
0,5 
6 
1.0 



14.8 
16 3 



20.4 

36.1 
54. g 

57.8 
31.3 
67.9 
6.9 
32.8 
26.9 
22.8 
55.5 
75.6 
49.6 

30.8 
53 
33.3 
40 



4.1 
17.6 
10.4 



9.1 



Lbs. 



8.5 

13.9 
16.6 
18.3 
12.7 
28.8 
2.5 
16.0 
11 
12.2 
21.5 
13.1 
20.0 

8.2 

18.7 



4.8 
4.3 



4.9 



12.0 



1 

6.4 

2.9 

2.3 



Lbs. 



4.2 

s'e 

10.3 

13.7 

13.9 

11.7 

8.7 

10.2 

24.0 

5.0 

5.6 

11.7 

15.0 

13.0 

9 9 
19.0 



.2.6 
1.6 



1.8 



12.9 



3.3 

8.9 
14.0 



7.5 



7.6 
7.6 



3.8 



THE DAIRY HERD 



49 



Table V. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing const ituents.-C<7«. 



Name of feed. 



Rye fodder 

Sorghum 

Meadow fescue, in bloom 

Hungarian grass 

Green barley 

Peas and oats 

Peas and barley 

Hay. 

Timothy 

Orchard grass 

Redtop 

Kentucky blue grass 

Hungarian grass 

Mixed grasses 

Rowen ( mixed) 

Meadow fescue 

Soja-bean hay 

Oat hay 

Marsh or swamp hay 

Marsh or swamp hay 

White daisy 

Straw. 

Wheat 

Rye 

Oat 

Barley 

Wheat chaff 

Oat chaff 

Fresh legumes. 

Red clover, different stages. 

Aisike, bloom 

Crimson clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Soja bean 

4 



Co. 
Q 

Lbs 



90 

92 
90.8 

85.8 
85.7 
85.7 



29.2 
25 2 
19.1 
28.2 
16.4 
24.9 



Digestible 

nutrients in 100 

pounds. 



CM 
Lbs. 



2.1 

0.6 
1.5 

2.0 
1.9 
1.8 
1.7 



2.8 
4.9 
4.8 
4.8 
4.6 
5.9 
7.9 
4.2 
10.8 
4.3 
2.4 
3.6 
3.8 

0.4 
0.6 
1.2 
0.7 
0.3 
1.6 

2.9 
2.7 
2.4 
3.9 
1.8 
3.2 



o 
Lbs. 



14.1 
12.2 
16.8 
16.0 
10.2 
7.1 
7.2 



43.4 

42.3 
46.9 
37.3 
61.7 
40.9 
40.1 
43.3 
38.7 
46.4 
29.9 
44.7 
40.7 

36.3 
40.6 
38.6 
41.2 
23.3 
33.0 



14.8 
13.1 

9.1 
12.7 

8.7 
11.0 



4) c8 



Lbs. 



0.4 
0.4 
0.4 
0.4 
0.4 
0.2 
0.2 

1.4 
1.4 
1.0 
2.0 
1.3 
1.2 
1.5 
1.7 
1.5 
1.5 
0.9 
0.7 
1.2 

0.4 
0.4 
0.8 
0.6 
0.6 
0.7 



0.7 

0.6 

0.6 



0.2 

0.6 



Fertilizing 

constituents in 

1,000 pounds. 



J5 

Lbs. 

3.3 
2.3 



3.9 



12.6 
13.1 
11.6 
11.9 
12.0 
14.1 
16.1 
9.9 
23.2 



6.9 

4.6 

6.2 

13.1 

7.9 



6.3 
4.4 
4.3 

7.2 
2.7 
2.9 



si " 
Oh 

Lbs. 



1.6 

9 



1.6 



6.3 
4.1 
3.6 
4.0 
3.5 
2.7 
4.3 
4.0 
6.7 



1.2 

2.8 
2.0 
3.0 
7.0 



1.3 
1.1 
1.3 
1.3 
1.0 
1.6 



Lbs. 

7.3 
2.3 



6.5 



9.0 
18.8 
10.2 
16.7 
13.0 
15.6 
14.9 
21.0 
10.8 



6.1 

7.9 

12.4 

20.9 

4.2 



4.6 
2.0 
4.9 
5.6 
3.1 
6.3 



50 



DAIRY FARMING 



Table V. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.-C<?;/. 





8 

d 

u 

% 

Lbs 


Digestible 

nutrients in 100 

pounds. 


Fertilizing 

con-tituentsin 

1,000 pounds. 


Name of feed. 


'5 
Lbs. 


it 

o 
Lbs. 


Sis 

H 
Lbs 


d ■ 
O 

g 
Lbs 


o 
o 

J3 . 
O.T3 

"1 

.a -■« 

Ph 

Lbs. 


1 
o 

Lbs 


Legume hay and straw. 
Red clover, medium 


84.7 
78.8 
90 8 


6.8 

5.7 

8.4 

11.5 

10.5 

11.0 

10.8 

2.3 

4.3 

0.9 
2.0 
0.6 
3.0 
1.9 
1.5 
2.7 
1.6 
1.6 

0.9 
1.2 
1.1 
1.1 
1.0 
1.0 
0.8 
1.6 
2.0 


35.8 
32.0 
42.5 
42.2 
34.9 
39.6 
38.6 
40.0 
32.3 

11.3 
13.5 
14.9 

8.5 
13.4 
8.6 
8.7 
9.2 
13.0 

16.3 

8.8 

10.2 

5.4 

7.2 

8.1 

7.8 

11.2 

16.8 


1.7 

1 9 
1.5 
1.5 
1.2 
1.2 
1.1 
1.0 
0.8 

0.7 
1.0 
0.2 
1.9 
1.6 
0.9 
1.3 
0.7 
0.7 

0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.2 
0.2 
0.2 
0.2 


20.7 
22.3 
23.4 
27.5 
20.5 
21.9 
19.5 
17.5 
14.3 

2.8 


3.8 
5.5 
6.7 
5.2 
4.0 
5.1 
5.2 
4 
3.5 

1.1 


•:>9: 


Red clover, mammoth 


12.2 
'^'^ 3 




90 ?i 


18 1 




90 4 


13 1 


Alfalfa 


91.6 

89 3 
89 9 


16 8 




14 7 




13 ^ 


Pea-vine straw 


86.4 

20.9 
28.0 
23.9 
27.5 
32.0 
20.7 
25.8 
21.0 
24.0 

21.1 
13.0 
13.5 
9.1 
9.5 
11.4 
11.4 
11.7 
20.0 


10 ?, 


Silage. 

■ 


3 7 














Alfalfa 
































Barn-yard millet and soja bean 














Roots and tubers. 
Potato 


3.2 
2.4 
2.2 
1.9 
1.8 
1.9 
1.5 
1.8 
2.6 


1.2 

0.9 
l.C 
0.9 
1.0 
1.2 
0.9 
2 ( 
1.4 


4 6 




4 4 




4 8 


Beet mangel 


3 8 


Flat turnip 


3 ^ 


Ruta-baga 


4 9 




5 i 


Parsnip 


4 4 


Artichoke 


4 7 







THE DAIRY HERD 51 

Table V. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents. — Con. 



Name of feed. 



Miscellaneous. 



Cabbage 

Spurry 

Sugar-beet leaves. 
Pumpkin, field . . . 
Pumpkin, garden. 
Prickly comfrey. . 

Rape 

Acorns, fresh 



Dried blood 91 

Meat scrap 89 . 3 

Dried fish 89.2 

Beet pulp |10.2 

Beet molasses |79 . 2 



Q 
Lbs. 



15.3 

20.0 
12.0 
9.1 
19 
11 

14.0 
44 



Digestible 

nutrients in 100 

pounds. 



a, 

Lbs. 



1 

1.5 
1.7 
1.0 
1.4 
1.4 
1.5 
2.1 



o 
Lbs. 



Cow's milk.. 

Cow's milk, colostrum 
Skim milk, gravity . . . . 
Skim milk, centrifugal. 

Buttermilk 

Whey 



12.8 
25.4 
9.6 
9.4 
9.9 
6.6 



3.6 

17.6 

3.1 

2.9 
3.9 

0.8 



8.2 
9.8 
4.6 
5.8 
8.3 
4.6 
8.1 
34.4 

.0 

.3 

.0 

7.3 

59.5 

4.9 
2.7 
4.7 
6.2 
4.0 
4 



Lbs. 



0.4 
0.3 
0.2 
0.3 
0.8 
0.2 
0.2 
1.7 

2.5 
13.7 
10.3 

'"."6 

3.7 
3.6 
0.8 
0.3 
1.1 
0.3 



Fertilizing 

constituents in 

LOGO pounds 



Lbs. 



3.8 
3.8 
4.1 



1.1 

4.2 
4.5 



135.0 
113.9 

77.6 
1.4 

14.6 

5.3 

28.2 
5.6 
5.6 
4.8 
1.6 



Lbs. 



1.1 
2.6 
1.5 



1.6 
1.1 
1.5 



13.5 

7.0 

120.0 

0.2 

0.5 

1.9 
6.6 
2.0 
2.0 
1.7 
1.4 



4.3 

5.9 
6.2 



0.9 
7.5 
3.6 



7.7 
1.0 
2.0 
0.4 
56.3 

1.8 
1.1 

1.9 
1.9 
1.6 

1,8 



CHAPTER VIIl. 

SILOS AND SILAGE. 

A silo is an air-tight receptacle for preserving green 
feeds in a succulent condition. Feed thus preserved is 
known as silage. Clover, cow-peas and other forage 
crops have been successfully made into silage, but expe- 
rience has shown that the cheapest and most satisfactory 
silage is made from corn cut in the denting or glazing 
stage. 

Silage is now universally recognized as one of the 
cheapest and most indispensable feeds in economical milk 
production. With the studious dairyman, it is no longer 
a question of, "Can I afford to build a silo," but, "Can I 
afford to be without one?" 

Advantages of Silage. The advantages of feeding 
silage may be briefly stated as follows : 

1. It furnishes the cheapest roughage available upon 
the farm. 

2. It furnishes roughage, which, in degree of suc- 
culence and palatability, more nearly approaches green 
pasturage than anything else to be had upon the farm. 

3. Owing to its kinship to grass in succulence and 
palatability, it can readily be substituted for the latter 
during periods of drought and during late summer and 
fall when pasturage is nearly always inadequate. 

4. It has made winter dairying a feasible and profit- 
able business, because the silage readily takes the place 
of summer pasturage. 

5. It furnishes a uniform feed and makes uniformly 

52 



THE DAIRY HERD 53 

good feeding a possibility the year round. 

6. It permits the storage of a large amount of feed in 
a comparatively small space. 

7. Where the silo adjoins the barn it makes feeding 
easy. 

8. It permits housing the corn crop regardless of the 
condition of the weather. 

9. There is practically no waste in feeding. 

10. It yields the largest amount of feed possible from 
the corn plant. 

Size of Silo. The size of the silo is determined by 
the number of cattle to be fed. In general, a cow will 
consume about 40 pounds of silage daily ; and, if fed 
silage 180 days in the year, she will consume a total of 
7,200 pounds. At this rate 20 head of cattle would con- 
sume y2 tons. But it should be remembered that it re- 
quires a silo of not less than 80 tons' capacity to hold 
72 tons of well made silage. A cylindrical silo of this 
capacity will measure about 14 feet in diameter and 28 
feet in height. 

A good rule to follow in determining the size of a silo 
is to estimate the amount of silage that is to be fed dur- 
ing the year and assume a weight of 40 pounds for every 
cubic foot of silage. 

Location of Silo. For convenience of feeding, the 
silo should be as near the manger as possible. It is pref- 
erably joined to the barn at one end by means of a chute, 
so that one can step into the silo without leaving the 
barn. Where the silo is thus located, it is necessary to 
prevent the escape of silage odors at milking time, by 
providing doors for closing up the chute leading to the 
silo. 

Construction of Silo. Silos should be round, having 



54 DAIRY FARMING 

the appearance of a cylinder whose height is about twice 
its diameter. They may be built of wood, stone, brick, 
concrete, or a combination of two or more of these. As a 
rule, the choice is determined by the relative cost and 
availability of the materials mentioned. 

In building a silo four things must be kept in mind. 
First, it must be air-tight. Second, it must have sufficient 
strength and rigidity to enable it to withstand the pres- 
sure of the silage without yielding. Third, it must have 
a smooth inside surface to permit the silage to settle 
readily. And, fourth, it must be deep so that the weight 
of the silage will give compactness sufficient to expel the 
air which is held between the particles of silage. 

It is desirable that the total depth of the silo be at 
least 30 feet. Where the ground is dry, five or six feet 
of this depth may be underground. When 30 feet is 
selected as the fixed depth, the silo can be made of the 
desired capacity by selecting the proper diameter, which 
may vary from 12 to 24 feet. 

For want of space we shall attempt to describe briefly 
only one type of silo, one which has proven very satis- 
factory, both in efficiency and in cheapness of construc- 
tion. This is known as the Gurler silo, a detailed de- 
scription of which is given in Bulletin No. 125 of the 
Wisconsin Experiment Station. Fig. 10 shows a vertical 
section through this silo. 



THE DAIRY HERD 



55 



y^ 










<y^ 




1 
1 

1 

■1 
I 
1 

1 
'\ 

\ t 

, -T3 "H bfl 5 r: _• 

J (u ^ ■;= ^ c t/i 

HI 55|| 

t 1 'Y oj I' f C 

■1 i;Oaj>Epoo 




- 






- 








1 

o 
bfl 


- 






- 








- 




r 






^ 


/ 

/ 






^ 




-X^ 


^ 


\ 




zCd^lmo 




ZjC_1X-JU>- 






c 


-rT-nrT 






-^rTfi: 


-■ rr^c?^ 




' /f If — '" 




-^Wti- 


t:'..-.(. l\ ^ 


r"-^ r^\ 






- 


-~JZ^ 




irx^ 


'.J 


■:V;'j4 '.'>'•: 


'.• :'.r''",)S",C -" ■-•=:.-',•'- .■.■■•• I'.-.;;, ' ' ."r ' ^ ::• 


■1-V,-- *■''-■''•'> 





Fig. 10. 



56 DAIRY FARMING 

The 2 by 4 studding are set I2 inches apart on a cir- 
cular foundation, and the y^ inch sheeting is nailed on 
horizontally as shown in the illustration. The inside, 
including the floor, is cemented, using two parts of sand 
to one of cement. 

Ventilation of the wall is necessary to preserve the silo. 
This is secured by leaving a small open space at the top 
on the inside between the lining and the plate, and boring 
holes near the sill through the outside sheeting, covering 
them with wire gauze to keep rats and mice out. 

Any roof that sheds water is suitable for a silo, as the 
top need not and should not be tight. In fact, it is well 
to have a small opening in the roof to provide ventilation. 

For convenience the door of the silo should be con- 
tinuous, extending from top to bottom. Short pieces of 
matched planks are commonly used for a continuous door. 
These are put in one by one as the filling of the silo pro- 
gresses; the ends being, however, first covered with a 
paste of clayey mud to assist in rendering the door air- 
tight. Heavy building paper tacked on the inside of the 
door will also help to exclude the air. The break or 
weakness in the silo wall caused by the continuous door is 
overcome by running iron rods horizontally across the 
door at short intervals, fastening the ends to the studding 
on either side of the door. 

Cutting the Corn. Corn for the silo should not be cut 
until nearly mature. This is desirable for several rea- 
sons. First, and most important, is the fact that corn at 
maturity contains about five times as much dry matter as 
it does at the tasseling stage. This rapid increase in 
nutrients from the tasseling stage on is forcibly shown 
by the following figures obtained at the New York 
(Geneva) experiment station: 



THE DAIRY HERD 57 

Table VI — Showing nutrients in corn plant at different stages 
of growth. 

Dry matter, 
Stage of growth. per acre 

(tons) 

Fully tasseled 0.8 

Fully silked 1.5 

Kernels watery to full milk 2.3 

Kernels glazing 3.6 

Ripe 4.0 

This table teaches an important lesson, and should dis- 
courage farmers from cutting young, immature corn, 
either for silage or soiling purposes. 

Postponing the cutting until the corn has reached the 
denting or glazing stage also makes silage of better qual- 
ity. At this stage the plant is less watery and the sugar 
has been largely converted into starch, thus preventing 
excessive fermentation and the formation of an undue 
amount of acid in the silage. 

Filling the Silo. When the corn reaches the right 
stage of maturity, it should be cut at once and hauled 
from the field to the silo, where the entire plant, ears and 
all, is run through an ensilage cutter or shredder, cutting 
it into pieces from j/2 to i inch long. The ensilage cut- 
ters are provided with carriers which carry the silage to 
any height desired in the silo. 

Where silos are rapidly filled, not less than two men 
should remain constantly in the silo, leveling and dis- 
tributing the silage. This is necessary to insure uniform 
silage and an even settling. The silage should also be 
tramped, especially along the ti\ge of the silo where, ow- 
ing to the friction of the wall, it will not settle as readily 
as elsewhere. 

In case of rapid filling it is best also to leave the silage 



58 



DAIRY FARMING 



to settle a day or two and then refill. After such settling 
there will be room for considerably more silage. 

Covering for Silage. The floor and walls of the silo 
are air tight by construction, and where the silage has 
been thoroughly packed, none should spoil at these places. 
At the top, however, where the silage is exposed to the 
air and where it is less solidly packed some of it will 
naturally spoil. To reduce this loss of silage to a mini- 
mum, some cheap material that will pack well, such as 
old, wet hay, for example, should be placed on top of the 
silage immediately after filling, and this should be fol- 
lowed by a thorough wetting so as to hasten the settling 
and matting process. Usually a dozen barrels of water 
may be run over the top of the silage to good advantage. 




•silage: truck. 



Depth of Silage that Must Daily Be Removed from 
Top. Owing to the constant contact of the air with the 
top layer of silage, it is necessary to remove a horizontal 
layer of silage to a depth of not less than i^ inches daily 
to prevent any from spoiling. If this fact is kept in mind 
when building a silo, its diameter can be made such as to 
make possible the feeding of a layer of this depth daily. 



THE DAIRY HERD 59 

Cost of Silos and Machinery. The cost of silos 
varies with the cost of materials and the method of con- 
struction. An 8o-ton silo of the Gurler type can be built 
for about $150. Other silos of the same capacity, but 
made of different materials may cost double this amount. 

A moderate sized ensilage cutter that would answer for 
an 80-ton silo would also cost about $150. 

Where some form of power must be purchased a gaso- 
line engine is recommended because of the many other 
uses it may serve on a dairy farm. (See Chap. XV.) 

A moderate sized ensilage cutter when not too heavily 
fed can be operated satisfactorily with an eight horse 
power gasoline engine. The cost of such an engine is 
about $325. 



CHAPTER IX. 

METHOD OF KEEPING RECORDS OF INDIVIDUAl, COWS. 

Necessity of Keeping Records. Through the efforts 
of experiment stations, private individuals, and Hoard's 
Dairyman in particular, tests have been made of hundreds 
of herds throughout the country, only to find that in 
practically all of them some cows are kept at an actual 
loss to their owners. The failure on the part of the 
owners to detect the unprofitable cows may be traced 
to three causes: (i) it may be the result of reckoning 
with the herd as a whole, rather than the individual 
members composing it; (2) it may be the result of ignor- 
ing the quality of the milk; or (3) it may be due to 
attempts to estimate the value of the individual members 
by guessing at the flow of milk for a week or two when 
the cows are doing their best. 

The lack of business method in reckoning with the 
herd as a whole, rather than with the individuals com- 
posing it, is too apparent to need further explanation. 
The same may be said with reference to the practice 
of ignoring the quality of the milk. Where the owner 
guesses the annual yield from the quantity of milk pro- 
duced for a week or two during the lactation period, 
he is likely to err in three important respects : ( i ) 
guessing in itself is bound to lead more or less frequently 
to grossly erroneous estimates; (2) yearly estimates based 
upon a few weeks' production ignore the fact that some 
cows yield milk eleven or twelve months of the year, 

60 



THE DAIRY HERD 



61 




J CHATILLON'S 

IMPROVED CIRCULAR 
„ SPRING BALANCE 
II :, tp WEIGH. 30.lb . 

■ BY OUNCES 



while others produce only seven or eight months ; and 
(3) estimates of this kind fail to consider that some 
cows that yield heavily for a short time and then drop 
off to a medium flow, may be exceeded in total pro- 
duction by others that never yield heavily at any period, 
but whose flow is quite steady from beginning to end 
of the lactation period. 

It is evident from what has been 
said that there is but one method by 
which we can tell with certainty the 
value of the individual cows in a 
herd, and that method consists in 
weighing and testing the milk and 
keeping a record of the feed con- 
sumed for the entire period of lacta- 
tion. 

Daily Record of Milk. Keep- 
ing a daily record of the weight of 
the milk of each cow is a very sim- 
ple and inexpensive task. All that 
is necessary is to have some form of 
scales and a ruled sheet of paper 
upon which to record the weights of 
milk morning and night. Fig. 1 1 
shows a cheap and convenient scales 
which weigh from one-tenth pound 
to 30 pounds. A convenient milk 
record sheet is shown below. 

The daily weighing of the milk 
from each cow is valuable also in 
serving as a check upon the work of 
the milkers. A rapid shrinking in the milk is easily 
detected on the milk sheet and may be entirely due to 




Pig. 11.— Milk Scales. 
Weigh 0.1 to 30 pounds. 



62 



DAIRY FARMING 



Milk Record f 


or Month of- 












.t90 








Nome of Cow. 


Date. 


1 


>> 

flS 

a 


a 

•-5 


























Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs 


Lbs. 


Lbs 


Lbs 


Lbs 


Lbs 


Lbs 


Lbs 


Lbs 


Lbs 


L'^a. 


, A.M. 




























































o A. M. 






























P. M. 






























, A. M. 






























P. M. 






























4 ^ JJ- 




























































. A.M. 




























































g A. M. 




























































, A. M. 






























P. M 






























o A. M. 




























































a A.M. 






























P. M. 






























10 A.M. 




























































11 A.M. 




























































12 A. M. 




























































13 A.M. 




























































14 *JI- 






























" P. M. 






























15 A. M. 






























" P. M. 






























16 A.M. 




























































17 t M- 






















• 






■ 


" P. M. 






























18 A. M. 




























































19 A.M. 




























































20 A.M. 






























*" P. M. 






























21 ^- M- 


























































































** P. M. 






























23 A.M. 






























' P. M. 






























24 A. M. 




























































»K A M. 




























































26 A' }?,■ 






























P. M. 






























27 A.M. 




























































28 Aw 






























P. M. 






























29 A. M. 




























































30 A.M. 






























P. M. 






























Total 































THE DAIRY HERD 



63 



careless milking. Great daily fluctuations in the yield 
of milk are also in most cases the result of indifferent 
and inefficient milkers. 

Collecting Samples of Milk for Testing. The milk 
from each cow should be tested about once a month dur- 
ing the whole period of lactation. A satisfactory way of 
doing this is to collect what is known as a composite 
sample, which consists in securing about one-half ounce 
of milk from each of six consecutive milkings and placing 
this in a half pint composite sample jar (Fig. 12) con- 




Fig. 12.- 

Composite 
Sample Jar. 




Fig. 13.— Test Bottle Rack. 



taining a small amount of preservative. A test of this 
composite sample will represent the average per cent 
of butterfat for the period during which the sample 
was taken and will serve with sufficient accuracy as the 
average test for the entire month. 

Each composite sample jar should be carefully labeled 
by placing the name or number of the cow upon it. A 
convenient rack for these jars is shown in Fig. 13. 



64 



DAIRY FARMING 



Sampling and Samplers. Immediately after milking 
the milk is poured from one pail into another several 
times and then sampled at once. The sampling may be 
done by either of two methods : ( i ) by means of a one- 
half or one ounce dipper shown in Fig. 14; or (2) by 
means of a narrow tube shown in Fig. 15. 



? 




Fig. 14.- 
Dipper Samp- 
ler. 



Fig. 15.— 
Thief Samp- 
ler. 



The dipper furnishes the simplest and easiest means 
of sampling milk. Where the milk is thoroughly mixed 
and where the quantity is practically the same morning 
and night, this method of sampling is accurate. 

With the tube method the sample is always propor- 
tionate to the quantity of milk and it will draw a reo- 



THE DAIRY HERD 65 

resentative sample even when the milk has stood undis- 
turbed a few minutes. This metliod of sampling should 
be employed, therefore, where there is much variation in 
the quantity of night's and morning's milk, or where 
the milk is not apt to be thoroughly mixed before samp- 
ling. 

Preservatives. Milk can not be satisfactorily tested 
after it has soured, owing to the difficulty of securing 
an accurate sample. This makes it necessary to place a 
small amount of preservative in the composite sample 
jar before the sampling is begun. 

The best preservatives for this purpose are corrosive 
sublimate, formalin and bichromate of potash. All of 
these are poisons and care must be taken to place them 
where children and others unfamiliar with their poisonous 
properties, can not have access to them. For conve- 
nience, the bichromate of potash and corrosive sublimate 
have been put up in tablet form, each tablet containing 
enough preservative to keep a pint of milk sweet from 
one to two weeks. The bichromate of potash can be 
procured from all druggists, and a quantity not to exceed 
the size of a pea should be added to each pint composite 
jar. A larger quantity is liable to interfere with the 
testing. 

Testing With the Babcock Test. The method of 
operating the Babcock test is explained in detail in chap- 
ter XVIII. 

Calculating Butterfat and Butter Yield. The 
monthly butterfat yield of each cow is determined by 
multiplying the total pounds of milk for the month by 
the per cent of butterfat it contains. For example, if 
cow No. I produced 850 lbs. of milk testing 4.2% fat, the 



66 DAIRY FARMING 

total fat in this milk would equal 850 X 4-2, or 37.70 
pounds. 

Since butter contains salt, water, casein and only about 
83% butter fat, it is to be expected that the yield of butter 
will exceed that of butterfat. provided the losses in skim- 
ming- and churning are normal. The general rule in 
estimating the butter yield is to increase the butterfat 
by one-sixth. Thus the estimated butter yield of the 
37.70 pounds of fat given above would equal 37.70 X 
I 1-6, or 43.98 lbs. The difference between the butter fat 
and the actual butter yield is known as the "overrun." 

Estimating the Cost of Feed. The final test of the 
value of a cow is the economy of production. In addition, 
therefore, to knowing the butterfat yield, we must also 
know the cost of the feed she consumed in producing it. 
Obviously a daily weighing of the feed, especially as 
concerns roughage, is not practical upon most dairy farms. 
If the feed which each cow receives is weighed about 
twice a month an approximate estimate of the feed 
consumed can be obtained by considering the weighed 
amount of feed as the average daily consumption for the 
month. To illustrate, let us suppose that cow No. X is 
doing full work on a ration consisting of 8 pounds of 
wheat bran, 2 pounds of cotton-seed meal, 40 pounds 
of corn silage and 8 pounds of corn stover. By carefully 
observing the volume of the weighed amounts of each 
feed, approximate quantities may be measured for two 
weeks, after which a day's feed is again weighed and the 
measuring continued for the remainder of the month. 
In this way an approximate estimate of the quantity of 
feed consumed for the month can be obtained with a small 
amount of labor. By multiplying the total quantities 
of the dififerent feeds fed during the month, by their 



THE DAIRY HERD 



67 



respective values per ton, we obtain an approximate cost 
of the feed fed each cow during that period. 

Yearly Record of Milk, Butterfat and Feed. At the 

end of each month a record of each cow's milk, butterfat 
test, and butterfat production, as well as an estimate 
of the cost of feed, should be entered upon a yearly 
record sheet like that shown below. 





HERD RECORD 


FOR YEAR 


190 . 






NAME OF COW 


NAME OF COW 


Month 




a 
<o 
O 
u 
« 

to 


C3 

fa 

it " 

3 


■C 10 
V O 

to a) 
Wfe 





O 
4) 

a- 

E-1 


*3 
ca 
fa 

3 

P3 


'O en 
<D O 

so 
a-d 

as 


































































































































































Total 



















CHAPTER X. 

MILKING. 

Importance of the Milking Process. The profits 
from a dairy herd are far more largely dependent upon 
the conditions under which the milk is drawn than dairy- 
men are commonly led to believe. For example, hundreds 
of instances could be mentioned where milk drawn under 
cleanly conditions has been sold for one hundred per 
cent more than that drawn under uncleanly conditions. 
But milking from the standpoint of cleanliness is 
discussed in the chapter on sanitary milk pro- 
duction and will, therefore, not be considered here. 
The conditions that will be treated in the following 
pages are those which have a direct bearing upon the 
yield of milk and butterfat, and which are no less import- 
ant in determining the profits from the herd than are those 
concerning cleanliness. 

Milk Function Controlled by Nervous System. The 
various factors bearing upon the secretion of milk are 
readily understood when it is remembered that the pro- 
duction of milk is closely associated with the nervous 
organization of the cow. Whatever reacts upon her nerv- 
ous system will react in like degree upon the secretion 
of milk. 

Value of Kind and Gentle Treatment. It is owing 
to her high nerve development that a cow is so very 
sensitive to excitement, boisterousness, unkindness, rough 
treatment and other allied abuses which always react 

68 



THE DAIRY HERD 69 

so unfavorably upon the production of milk and butterfat. 
Especially disastrous are the effects of abuses admin- 
istered just previous to or during milking. Yet how fre- 
quently are dogs allowed to chase the cows to the stable, 
and how often are attendants seen with clubs which they 
use as aids in getting the cows into their proper places ! 
In addition, the language and boisterousness that accom- 
panies, all this leaves no doubt that the animals are 
treated as offending brutes, instead of willing, sensitive 
mothers who are scarcely any less sensitive to harsh 
words than are human mothers. IMake pets out of your 
cows by kind treatment, for kindness is never without 
compensation, no matter how, when or where applied. 

Elaboration of Milk During Milking, If, in addi- 
tion to what has been said, it will be remembered that 
the larger portion of the milk is secreted during the 
process of milking, the importance of giving a cow the 
very best care and treatment at this time will be fully 
apparent. Furthermore, the fact that most of the milk 
is formed during milking, materially assists in explaining 
why different milkers secure such varying quantities of 
milk and butterfat from the same cow. 

Effect of Change of Milkers. From what has been 
said it is easily seen that frequent changes of milkers are 
certain to react unfavorably upon the milk and butterfat 
production. A cow that has become thoroughly accus- 
tomed to a certain milker will feel restless and uneasy 
with a new njilker, which is nowhere more plainly indi- 
cated than on the milk sheet. A change of milkers, 
furthermore, always means a change in the manner of 
milking, and, therefore, a change in the stimulation of 
the udder. Since the stimulation of the udder by the 
milker is the cause of n.ilk secretion, it is evident that 



70 DAIRY FARMING 

a change in the method of stimulation will result in 
a reduction of milk and butterfat production. The wise 
dairyman will therefore avoid changing milkers as far 
as possible, and will insist that the same milker always 
milk the same cows. 

Fast Versus Slow Milking. The larger yields are 
secured from fast milking. This may possibly be ex- 
plained upon the basis of udder stimulation. The fast 
milker will stimulate the udder to a greater degree than 
the slow milker, and the extra stimulus thus given evi- 
dently favors the secretion in the milk glands, as indicated 
by the actual increased production. 

Importance of Withdrawing All the Milk. One 
of the most important factors in milking is securing all 
the milk at each milking; that is, milking a cow dry. 
Whatever milk is left in the udder from one milking 
to another is not only lost to the milker, but actually 
acts as a check upon further secretion, so that the 
habitual practice of not milking cows "clean" or "dry" 
results in a gradual shrinking of the milk flow and an 
early "drying up" of the cow. Furthermore, the loss 
of the strippings means the loss of the very best milk. 
The first milk drawn from a cow usually contains less 
than 1% fat, while the strippings may contain as much 
as 14%. 

Regularity of Milking and Feeding. The man who 
is looking for satisfactory returns from his dairy must 
make regularity a watchword. Cows must be milked reg- 
ularly at a fixed time morning and night. Milking 
half an hour sooner or later than the fixed time interfers 
much more seriously with the milk yield than is com- 
monly supposed. Not only does irregularity of milking 
reduce the yield of milk and butterfat, but irregularity in 



THE DAIRY HERD 71 

feeding leads to the same result. If, for example, cows 
that have been accustomed to receive their concentrates 
before milking, should receive them at times after milk- 
ing, a reduction in the yield would be at once noticed. 
This is just what might be expected. Withholding the 
concentrates occasionally, will make the cows restless and 
discontented, which will sufificiently jar their nervous sys- 
tem to cause a perceptible drop in the milk flow. Sudden 
changes of feeds will act in a similar manner. 

Time Between Milkings. The periods between milk- 
ings should be as nearly equal as possible. For example, 
if cows are being milked at six o'clock in the morning, 
they are also preferably milked at six o'clock at night. 
The more uniform the periods between milkings, the more 
uniform the secretion of milk, and consequently the 
greater the production. The time between milkings also 
influences the richness of the milk. If the two milking 
periods are not equal, it will be found that the milk of the 
shorter period will be the richer. 

Frequency of Milking. As a rule nothing is gained 
by milking a cow three times instead of twice daily. In 
the case of exceptionally heavy milkers whose udders 
become unduly distended, there is, however, a distinct 
advantage in milking three times daily. The fact that 
milk from the shorter intervals between milkings has 
been found richer than that from the longer intervals, 
has driven some to the practice of milking average pro- 
ducers three times a day, with the hope of permanently 
increasing the test. While under such circumstances the 
test may be raised somewhat, the raise is only a temporary 
one. 

The Value of a Good Milker. From what has already 
been said, it is evident that the milker plays an important 



72 DAIRY FARMING 

part in the milk and biitterfat production of cows. The 
following data secured by H. B. Gurler from his own 
herd fully illustrate the importance of a good milker. As 
a result of two winters' tests, Mr. Gurler found that 
the cows milked by the poorest milker had fallen off 9.5 
pounds per head in three months, while the shrinkage 
of the cows milked by the best milker during the same 
period was only 1.88 pounds per head, a difference at 
the end of three months of 7.62 pounds of milk per cow 
daily in favor of the best milker. This fully explains 
why some milkers are cheap at $40 per month, while 
others are really expensive at less than half this amount. 

The Milk Scales and Babcock Tester as a Teacher 
of Correct Milking. The strongest searchlight used for 
the discovery of leaks in the dairy herd consists of a pair 
of scales and a Babcock tester. These will not only tell 
which cows are profitable and which are not, but, if 
rightly employed, will also tell which milkers are paying 
for their salaries and which are not. Milkers should be 
paid according to the quality of their work, and not, as is 
commonly the case, according to the number of hours' 
service. 

Milking Machines. Whether the milking machine 
may be considered an unqualified success can not be posi- 
tively stated at the present time. More time and tests are 
needed to warrant a positive statement. It may be stated, 
however, that many of our foremost dairymen have 
endorsed the milking machine as a successful milker, 
and this, too, after apparently thorough tests extending 
over periods of many months. Experiment stations also 
report favorable results from machine milking. 



CHAPTER XL 

HERD MANAGEMENT. 

Winter Dairying. Producing the bulk of milk during 
the winter has four distinct advantages : ( i ) prices for 
butter and cheese are higher at this time of the year ; 
(2) cows will milk longer when calving in the fall than 
in the spring; (3) labor is more plentiful at this time 
of the year; and (4) it is possible to feed cows cheaper 
during the winter than summer. 

1. As a rule prices for butter are from 50 to 75 per 
cent higher in winter than in summer. Prices for cheese 
average about 50 per cent higher in winter. Indeed 
prices for milk in general are higher in winter than sum- 
mer. It is evident that from the standpoint of higher 
prices alone, it is the part of wisdom to produce the 
bulk of the milk during the winter. 

2. When cows calve in the spring, they usually 
have pasturage enough for a good flow of milk until 
about August. At this time pastures as a rule get short 
and cows rapidly fall ofif in milk. By the time stable 
feeding begins they have dropped off so much that they 
can not be brought back to a fair flow of milk even on 
good feed. The result is a reduced yield of milk and an 
early "drying up" of the cows. 

When cows calve in the fall the expectation is to pro- 
duce the main flow of milk during the v/inter and conse- 
quently the cows are well supplied with feed until they 
are turned out on good pasturage in the spring. In this 

73 



74 DAIRY FARMING 

way the cows maintain a good flow of milk until the best 
period of grazing is over. The inevitable result is an 
extension of the period of lactation and a greater total 
production of milk. An increased production is also 
favored by the fact that cows yield the greater share 
of their milk during a time when they are least troubled 
with flies and excessive heat. 

3. It is an important advantage to be able to do most 
of the milking when other farm duties demand least 
attention. By having the cows calve in the fall, most of 
the milking is done during the winter. 

4. An acre of land planted to corn ordinarily yields 
as much feed as two or three acres in pasturage. When 
the cows calve in the fall there is bound to be more silage 
produced than when the cows calve in the spring, and 
in so far as this is true, the cost of feed is lessened. In 
the case of high priced land, the saving effected by 
reducing the acreage one-half or two-thirds by feeding 
a great deal of silage in place of pasturage must be evi- 
dent. 

Feeding the Bull. During the early life of the bull 
when he is reasonably tractable, there is no better place 
for him than a strongly enclosed pasture. This will sup- 
ply him with the right kind of feed, give him plenty of 
fresh air and sunshine, and afford him needful exercise. 
When stall-fed, he is preferably supplied with nitrogenous 
roughage, such as good clean clover hay. When the 
roughage consists of corn stover or oat straw, the bull 
should be given a fair allowance of wheat bran, oats or 
similar concentrates. It is always desirable to supply a 
stall-fed bull a moderate amount of succulent roughage, 
such as roots and silage. 

Management of Bull. A bull should never be allowed 



THE DAIRY HERD 



75 



to run with the herd, but is preferably kept where he is 
in sight of the cows. He should have a ring placed in 
his nose when ten or twelve months old. As a rule 
it is best not to tie him by the ring, but to give him the 
freedom of a box stall. He should be given enough 
exercise to keep him tractable and in good breeding 
condition. By all means have him dehorned. 

Never trifle with a bull. He should be treated gently 
yet firmly. He must know he has a master. It is 



-m 



ELCy/ITeO W^LH. 



TREAD 

PoweR 



BReecuA/6 

PEN. 
e'xio' 



BOX 
■STALL 

lO'XIZ' 



ELEV/^TEa W^LH 



nn 




B 




Fig. 16. Bull Pens. 



76 DAIRY FARMING 

important to teach him early to be led v/ith a staff 
fastened to the ring in his nose. 

It is a great misfortune to have so many valuable 
bulls disposed of at the first signs of unruliness. When 
a bull has proven his value as a breeder by his own 
offspring, he should be, and can be, retained even though 
his disposition becomes threatening, by quartering him 
as shown in Fig. i6. 

B shows a yard or pasture recommended by Hoard's 
Dairyman. To quote description of this yard: "It should 
contain (or be connected with) a strong box stall. X 
shows where the bull may be fed, sheltered and, if 
need be, confined. O represents a service pen or chute 
and should be, say 5 feet wide and 8 or 10 feet long. PP 
are strong posts and G is a gate, hinged at C and 
svv^inging between PP. The outer post should be so set 
that the gate can not, by any possibility, swing past it." 

It is evident from the description that such a yard can 
be used with absolute safety. 

A represents a yard or pen essentially as recommended 
by the Illinois Station. At one end of the yard is located 
a box stall in which the bull is fed and sheltered. The 
other end is divided into two compartments, one con- 
taining a tread power, the other serving as a breeding 
pen. The gate H may be turned to the right or to the left, 
closing either of the two compartments as may be desired. 

The tread power furnishes the means of exercising 
the bull. When he is wanted on the tread power, a 
rope is attached to his ring while he is at the manger 
and the attendant, who walks over the elevated narrow 
walk, leads him onto the power and shuts the gate 
behind him. While the bull is taking his exercise the 
attendant cleans and prepares his stall. Wlien the bull 



THE DAIRY HERD 77 

is wanted in the breeding pen he is similarly led along 
the other side of the yard. Water and feed can be 
supplied from the outside. 

It is evident that a yard of this kind guarantees abso- 
lute safety, provides good exercise for the bull, which 
at the same time furnishes the power to pump water, 
separate the milk, and do other useful things. 

An important matter in the management of a bull 
is to prevent excessive service. A bull should be over 
one year old before he is allowed to serve and the services 
the first season should be limited to lo or 15, depending 
upon the strength and vigor of the bull. The second 
season he may serve 25 cows. And while some bulls 
have apparently successfully served as many as 40 or 
more cows in a season, it will be found good policy, 
as a rule, to restrict the number of services as much as 
possible, especially if the usefulness of the bull is to be 
preserved for a long time. 

Breeding Rack. When heifers or small cows are bred 
to heavy bulls, a breeding rack should be used. This 
may be constructed as follows : Place tv/o posts in the 
ground 3^ feet high and about i^ feet apart. In a line 
parallel with these posts and 8 or 9 feet away, place two 
more posts i^^ feet high and 20 to 22 inches apart. 
Connect the short and long posts with 2x12 inch planks, 
leaving a space of 18 inches wide between the planks at 
the higher end, and 20 to 22 inches wide at the lower end, 
which serves as the entrance. This space will fit most 
cows, but it is desirable to have the planks adjustable so 
that the space between may be increased or decreased 
according to the size of the cows. The arrangement as 
described permits the bull's front feet to rest on the 
planks during service. The planks should be provided 



78 DAIRY FARMING 

with cleats and must be strongly supported at the middle. 
An adjustable stanchion is used to hold the cow in posi- 
tion. 

Age to Breed Heifers. Heifers should be bred to 
drop their calves when about two years old. In cases 
where there is a particular lack of development in growth 
and general vigor, it would doubtless be a distinct 
advantage to have heifers drop their calves at 26, 28 or 
even 30 months of age. 

Early breeding has the effect of stunting the growth 
of the animal, and thus making maximum development 
impossible. The heifer that is bred at one year of age 
is obliged to turn a portion of the feed that is naturally 
intended for her own development to that of the foetus. 
After the calf is dropped a still larger portion of the feed 
intended for her own development is utilized for the 
production of milk. 

While the stunting effect from early breeding has its 
drawback, there is also danger in delaying the breeding 
too long. It is doubtless correctly maintained that early 
breeding has the advantage of early stimulating the milk 
giving function of the animal, and that heifers that drop 
their calves at, say three years old, are apt to develop a 
beefy tendency at the expense of the dairy tendency. 

It is evident that this matter calls for a great deal of 
judgment. If a heifer leans toward the beefy tendency, 
doubtless it is policy to breed her rather young. If, 
on the other hand, there is a complete absence of a beefy 
tendency and an indication of a slow development and 
delicacy, no one would question the wisdom of breeding 
such an animal relatively late. 

Record Date of Service and Calving. This is import- 
ant for three reasons : ( i ) it enables one to confine cows 



THE DAIRY HERD 79 

in box stalls about a week before calving; (2) it enables 
one to tell the exact length of time cows have carried 
their calves, and therefore makes possible the detection 
of premature births and abortions; (3) one knows the 
exact length of the lactation period of each cow. 

1. Where the date of service is not known, it fre- 
quently happens that cows are obliged to calve in their 
stalls or stanchions. Such unfortunate occurrences should 
be prevented by confining cows in roomy box stalls not 
less than a week before they are due to calve. 

2. In case the date of service is not known, it is 
perfectly possible for cows to drop living abortions which 
the owner may mistake for mature calves. Where the 
abortion is of a contagious nature the danger of mistakes 
of this kind is too evident to need further explanation. 

3. Most dairymen appreciate the value of persistent 
milkers, yet comparatively few are able to tell, even 
approximately, the length of the lactation period of the 
different cows in the herd. The only certain way of 
knowing how long each cow produces milk after calving 
is to record the date of calving. 

"Drying Off" Cows. As a rule it is desirable to 
have cows "go dry" at least a month before calving. 
This has the effect of increasing the supply of nutrients 
for the development of the foetus, as well as enabling 
the cow to store up some reserve energy which will put 
her in better physical condition for the act of parturition 
and the period immediately following. 

Where it is desirable to hasten the "drying off," the 
following method will be of value. Start drying off by 
not milking the cow clean. This will quickly reduce 
the flow to a point where it is safe to skip every other 
milking. After a few days, or perhaps a week, the 



80 DAIRY FARMING 

milk will be sufficiently reduced to warrant milking only 
every other day. A very short time after this, as a 
rule, it will be found safe to stop milking entirely. 

In case of very persistent milkers, it is better to milk 
them close up to, if not up to, calving, rather than 
force the "drying off" process too much. 

Dehorning. The advantage of dehorning is now pretty 
generally recognized. The absence of horns makes cows 
more quiet and docile, and saves them many tortures 
that are ordinarily inflicted when the horns are retained. 

The horns may be removed either by sawing them 
off or by cutting them off with an instrument known as 
a clipper. The simplest and most humane method of 
removing horns, however, is the use of caustic potash 
soon after the calf is born. The Author has dehorned 
a great many calves by this method which is briefly 
described as follows : 

When the calf is 24 to 36 hours old, clip the hair 
from the invisible horns or buttons and rub them with a 
stick of caustic potash. The potash should be kept in an 
air-tight bottle until ready for use. As soon as removed 
from the bottle, the upper part of the stick should be 
wrapped with a piece of paper to prevent its burning 
the hand. After a few minutes' exposure to the air 
the stick becomes moist. As soon as this becomes notice- 
able, rub the exposed end of the stick over each button 
for a minute or two, or until the spot begins to look 
reddish or sore. If the calf is examined twelve hours 
later, a scab will be found where the potash was applied, 
showing that the potash has gradually eaten its way 
into the button and thus destroyed it. Care should be 
exercised not to allow the potash to touch any part but 



THE DAIRY HERD 8L 

the miniature horn, as a drop on the flesh would cause 
unnecessary pain. 

Cleanliness, Regularity and Kind Treatment. The 

subject of cleanHness is fully discussed in the chapter 
on Sanitary Milk Production. The importance of regu- 
larity and kind treatment are fully considered in the 
chapter on Milking. 

Warm Housing. On account of their general spare- 
ness of flesh, cows have little protection for their vital 
organs and are therefore peculiarly susceptible to cold. 
For this reason, warm housing during the winter season 
is a matter of the highest importance. It matters little 
how good a dairy machine a cow may be or how well 
she may be fed, the returns from her will be unsatis- 
factory if she is compelled to shiver in her stable the 
larger portion of the winter and is possibly even denied 
the protection of a stable during the cold drizzling rains 
which usually precede and follow the severe cold of the 
winter. 

Cows in Heat. Cows, while in heat, should be kept 
separate from the rest of the herd to avoid the usual 
disturbances incident to keeping them with the herd. 



CHAPTER XII. 

REARING the; DAIRY CALF. 

Prenatal Development. The making of a strong", vig- 
orous, healthy calf begins before it is born. Unless the 
pregnant mother is furnished with a sufficient amount 
of good, wholesome feed, rich in ash and protein, the 
foetus must necessarily suffer retarded development. Not 
only should the pregnant cow be supplied with the proper 
nutrients for the development of bone and muscle in 
the foetus, but the ration should be such as will keep her 
in the best physical condition, which requires some suc- 
culent roughage and grain rather laxative in character. 
(See page 42.) 

Time the Cow Should Suckle the Calf. As a rule 
it is best to remove the calf from its mother before it 
is three days old. The early removal of the calf has 
several important advantages : ( i ) it prevents to a great 
extent the excitement attendant on separating an older 
calf from its mother; (2) it renders it easier to teach the 
calf to drink from a bucket; (3) it permits regularity 
of milking from the start; and (4) it makes possible 
at the outset to milk the cow "clean" at each milking. 
Calves never feed regularly, nor do they suck heavy 
milkers dry at any time. The result is a continual 
residue of milk in the udder which acts as a check to 
the secretion of this substance and leads to an early 
shrinkage in the milk yield. 

In cases of caked and inflamed udders it is best, how- 
ever, to allow the calf to suckle the cow longer than 

82 



THE DAIRY HERD 



83 



the time stated, since this has a tendency to hasten the 
disappearance of such trouble. 

Feeding the Young Calf. The first milk drawn after 
calving has purging properties which nature has provided 
for the purging of the calf. It is important, therefore, 
that the calf receive this milk which is known as colos- 
trum. 

As soon as removed from the cow, the calf should be 
taught to drink from a clean bucket. It should be aided 
in this for a day or two by holding the tip of a finger 
in its mouth. The milk should be fed as near body 
temperature as possible. During the first two weeks 
the calf should be fed not less than three times a day, 
receiving eight to ten pounds of milk daily the first week, 
and ten to twelve pounds the second week. After the 
second week skim milk may be gradually substituted 
for whole milk, bringing the calf to a full skim milk 




Fig. 17.— Calf stanchions. 



84 DAIRY FARMING 

feed at the end of four weeks. Beginning with the 
substitution of skim milk, the calf should be fed a hand- 
ful of ground oats, corn meal, or linseed meal after each 
milk feed. At the age of one month, when feeding 
wholly on skim milk, one-half pound of grain may be fed 
daily to good advantage, and access should be given to 
good clean hay. The feed should be gradually increased 
with the growing needs of the animal. 

Calf Stanchions. The feeding of milk to calves 
becomes a comparatively easy task when the calves are 
confined in cheap, rigid stanchions like those shown in 
Fig. 17. When so confined one person can feed half a 
dozen or more calves at the same time, and can do this 
with less labor than is ordinarily required to feed one calf. 
It is well, however, not to keep the calves in the stanch- 
ions too long at any one time, because of the rigid con- 
finement. Calves that have formed the "sucking" habit 
may be confined to advantage in these stanchions during 
the night, especially when no small separate pens are 
available. 

Importance of Correct Feeding. A young calf has a 
delicate stomach, which is peculiarly liable to be upset by 
the injudicious feeding of milk and skim-milk. In this 
respect it differs little from the very young child. The 
effect that usually follows the injudicious feeding of milk 
is a case of scours. This trouble can be obviated in a 
large measure by strictly observing the following precau- 
tions : First, never feed calves cold milk, but have it as 
near blood heat as possible ; second, feed milk as fresh as 
possible and under no circumstances feed it when sour; 
third, feed milk only from vessels that have been thor- 
oughly cleaned and scalded ; and fourth, carefully avoid 
over-feeding. Scours or diarrhea is one of the common- 



THE DAIRY HERD 85 

est ailments of calves and one that leaves a great stunting 
effect upon their development. 

While great importance attaches to the correct feeding 
of the calf in its early life, an ample allowance of feed 
of the right kind should be supplied at all times. Fatten- 
ing feeds should always be avoided. 

General Care of the Calf. Calves should be given 
all the outdoor exercise, fresh air and sunshine possible. 
During cold and rainy weather they should be confined 
in clean, dry stables with plenty of bedding. All the 
comfort possible should be provided for calves at all 
times. It is important also to see that they are not too 
much annoyed by flies during the summer. When 
changed from dry feed to pasture the change should be 
made gradually, or trouble from scouring is likely to be 
encountered. Plenty of good, pure water should be pro- 
vided. The skim-milk feeding may be continued with 
profit for at least six months. When no pasture is avail- 
able, it is desirable to feed a liberal amount of good, 
nitrogenous hay and only a small amount of grain. This 
will furnish the necessary nutriments for growth, at the 
same time the large amount- of roughage tends to de- 
velop a large paunch in the young animal. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

dairy barn and milk house. 

the; dairy barn. 

A Place Where Human Food is Prepared. In build- 
ing a dairy barn it should be remembered that one is pro- 
viding a place where human food is to be produced. San- 
itary features should, therefore, have first consideration. 
Among the most important of these are abundance of 
light, ample ventilation and general regard to cleanli- 
ness. 

Contrary to general belief, a sanitary barn is not nec- 
essarily an expensive barn. Indeed where everything is 
considered, a sanitary barn is certain to prove actually 
cheaper in the long run than one in which sanitation is 
made an entirely secondary matter. 

General Plan of Barn. This is illustrated in Fig. i8. 
The plan shows two box stalls at the north end, which 
are intended primarily for confining cows that are about 
to calve, but may also be used for bulls. The front end 
of the barn contains a milk and separator room, and a 
feed room. The latter contains stairs leading to the sec- 
ond story, which is used as a storage for hay and fodder, 
and also contains storage boxes for concentrates, which 
communicate with the feed room below by means of 
8x8 inch shafts. 

The stalls are arranged to have the cows face out, 
that is, avv^ay from each other. This has several advant- 
ages over the common plan of having the feeding alley 

86 



THE DAIRY HERD 



87 



Hj.nos^ 




88 DAIRY FARMING 

in the middle of the barn. In the first place it is more 
sanitary. Where the two rows of cows face each other 
the foul breath from each must necessarily pass from one 
side to the other, thus causing the cows to breathe more 
or less impure air. When the cows face out the exhaled 
air is more equally distributed through the barn and in 
so far reduces the amount of impurities in it immediately 
in front of the cows. Another advantage in facing cows 
out is the fact that the head is placed nearest the wall 
where the temperature is lowest, leaving the portion of 
the animal that must be most protected from the cold in 
the warmer part of the stable. 

The silo is placed where it is most convenient for feed- 
ing. Fresh air inlets are built in the wall of the barn 
and two main air outlets are placed in the two box stalls, 
with a third at the ceiling in the middle of the barn. The 
driveway is such as to permit a team and wagon to 
enter one end of the barn and pass out at the other. 

Foundation and Floor. The barn should rest upon a 
substantial foundation constructed of stone or concrete. 
On the outside of the foundation and a little below it 
should be placed tile drains to prevent any water from 
working its way under the foundation. 

For sanitary reasons, only concrete floors should be 
permitted in a dairy barn. While the original cost may 
be somewhat high, in the long run they are cheapest. 
Aside from being easily cleaned, they also make possible 
the saving of all the liquid manure, an important item to 
consider in the management of a dairy. To prevent the 
dampness commonly associated with a concrete floor it 
should be constructed on a cobble stone and cinder foun- 
dation underlaid with drain tile. The finish of the floor 
should be rather rough to prevent cows slipping on it, 



THE DAIRY HERD 89 

The feeding alleys, that is, the part of the floor be- 
tween the mangers and the walls, should be about three 
inches higher than the platforms on which the cows 
stand. Moreover they should slope slightly toward the 
mangers. The platforms and driveway should also slope 
very slightly toward the gutters. 

Light. Sunlight, because of its disinfectant action, is 
of prime importance in making a stable sanitary. There 
should be not less than four square feet of window space 
per cow. 

Walls. Cheap and reasonably air-tight walls are se- 
cured by nailing matched lumber over good building 
paper on both the inside and outside of the studding, 
except the lower inside six feet. From the floor to a 
height of six feet, nail cheap one-inch lumber over build- 
ing paper and put lath and concrete on this as a finish. 
This makes the lower portion of the wall readily clean- 
able as it should be. The portion of the wall above the 
concrete, as well as the entire ceiling, should be fre- 
quently whitewashed. The air space in the wall should 
be filled with some good non-conducting material. Dry 
straw answers this purpose very satisfactorily. 

Ceiling. This should be boarded on the inside with 
matched lumber. The outside, or hay floor above, may 
be built of common, cheap lumber. When, however, no 
hay is stored above, the ceiling should have a dead air 
space, which is secured by using matched lumber and 
paper, both inside and outside, and filling the space be- 
tween with dry straw. 

Stalls and Ties. These should be arranged ana con- 
structed with the following points in view: (i) keep- 
ing the cows clean; (2) giving them as much comfort 
as possible; (3) preventing cows from stepping on each 



90 



DAIRY FARMING 




Fig. 19. -Drown Stall. 



Other's teats ; (4) giving the milker comfort during milk- 
ing 5 (5) having a minimum amount of surface for lodg- 
ment of dust; and (6) saving of time in tying. 




Fig 20. Bidwell Stall. 



THE DAIRY HERD 



91 



To keep cows clean the stall must be of such length as 
to place the hind feet near the edge of the gutter. In 
order to have comfort, cows should not be confined in 
rigid stanchions, nor should the stalls be too narrow. 
The stepping of cows on their neighbors' teats can be 
prevented only by using some form of partition between 




Fig. 21.- Half stall. 

them. To provide a reasonable amount of comfort for 
the milker the stalls must have ample width and the end 
posts of the partitions should set at the edge of the 
gutter. Solid wood partitions or closely meshed wire 
and iron partitions, afford too much surface for lodg- 
ment of dust. Moreover, solid wood partitions obstruct a 
free circulation of air. The simpler the partition the 
more desirable. 

Stalls and ties like those shown in Figs. 19 and 22 
answer all the requirements in a satisfactory manner. 



92 



DAIRY FARMING 



The stalls shown in Figs. 21 and 20 are used by many 
with much satisfaction, but are somewhat open to the 
objection of having too much surface for lodgment of 
dust. 



r-i>. 




Fig. 22.— A Cheap and Satisfactory Cow Stall and Manger. 



Rigid stanchions mean rigid confinement and should 
therefore never be used. Various forms of swinging 
stanchions, like those shown in Figs. 21 and 22, are used 
with much satisfaction. Movable halter ties, like that 
shown in Fig. 22,, are used in many leading dairy barns. 



THE DAIRY HERD 93 

The rope or chain is so fastened as to prevent forward 
or backward movements by the cows but permits free 
movement up and down. 



Fig. 23.— Baker Tie. 

Stalls like the Drown and Bidwell have the advantage 
of being adjustable. The front is movable, thus permit- 
ting the stall to be shortened or lengthened, according to 
the size of the cow. On the other hand, the swing 
stanchions, in dispensing with the front end, reduce the 
amount of stall surface, which is particularly noticeable 
in the stall shown in Fig. 22. 

In a cold climate, it is desirable to cover the concrete 
floor on which the cows stand with a movable wood plat- 
form. This may be the means of preventing udder 



94 DAIRY FARMING 

troubles and is certain to increase the comfort of cows 
during the cold season. 

Size of Stalls. An average-sized cow requires a stall 
y/2 feet wide and 4^ feet long. In nearly all herds, 
however, there are some cows larger and some smaller 
than the average. It is important, therefore, that one 
row of stalls be made to taper somewhat from one end 
to the other. For example, the stalls at one end may 
have dimensions 3'x3' 10", which would nicely accommo- 
date two-year-old Jersey heifers. From this end the 
dimensions may be gradually increased until they reach 
4'x4'io" at the opposite end. The latter dimensions 
would accommodate large Holstein-Friesian cows. 

Mangers. These should be constructed with four 
points in view : ( i ) they should be easily cleanable ; 

(2) they should be provided with movable partitions so 
as to prevent cows from stealing feed from each other; 

(3) they should be large enough to prevent cows from 
scattering their feed over the barn floor; and (4) the top 
should be below the cows' noses so as not to interfere 
too much with the circulation of the air in front of the 
cows. 

All of the above features are embodied in the manger 
illustrated in Fig. 22. This manger the Author has had 
placed in the college dairy barn and has found it highh 
satisfactory in all respects. The aim was to secure a 
thoroughly efficient manger with as small an outlay of 
capital as possible. Its construction is as follows : The 
lower three inches are built into the concrete floor. The 
superstructure, which is 20 inches high, 18 inches wide 
at the floor and 36 inches wide at the top, is built of 
^-inch matched lumber, except the partitions which are 
built of iV2-inch lumber. Both sides of the lumber are 



THE DAIRY HERD 



95 



planed. The partitions fit snngl}' into the 3-inch con- 
crete depression, and the entire manger is bnilt in mova- 
ble sections, each 21 feet long. The sections are held in 
place by means of a small hook at each end, which is 
fastened to the stanchion supports. 




CKOSJ-ysecr/cw or s<//^o//v6 

•SHOWING VEHTIL./^TOf> (itJLET) 

Fig. 24. 



Cf>oiS--S£cr/o/v or eu/LOifJG 
Fig. 25. 



The three-inch concrete depression makes it possible 
to water the cows in their stalls. When it is desired to 
clean the manger, the hooks are unfastened and the sec- 
tions turned over, thus leaving the entire manger clear 
for cleaning. 

Gutters. These should be about 15 inches wide and 
four inches deep. A greater depth is liable to injure the 
cows when they happen to slip into the gutter. More- 
over any extra depth means just so much more lifting 



96 DAIRY FARMING 

in removing the manure. Gutters should be perfectly 
tight to prevent loss of liquid manure. 

Ventilation. The best method of stable ventilation 
is that devised by F. H. King. The essential features 
of this method are the admission of the fresh air near 
the ceiling, and the withdrawal of the impure air from 
near the floor, as illustrated in Figs. 24 and 25. The 
object of admitting the cold, fresh air near the ceiling 
is to warm it before reaching the cows, by contact with 
the warm air at the ceiling. By having the main air 
exits near the floor, less heat will be lost than would be 
the case if the exits were placed at the ceiling; besides 
it is argued that a considerable amount of the impurities 
of the air are found at the floor to which the cows' breath 
is constantly directed. Recent experiments seem to in- 
dicate, however, that at least so far as carbonic acid gas 
is concerned, most of this gas is found at the ceiling. 

Whether most of the impurities are found at the ceil- 
ing or at the floor, it seems advisable to reinforce the 
exits at the floor, by placing a ventilator opening pro- 
vided with a register at the middle of the ceiling so 
that some air may be withdrawn from this point. Dur- 
ing very cold weather it may be desirable to reduce this 
exit to a minimum by closing the register, but during 
warm weather, or when it is desired to lower the barn 
temperature, it should be opened entirely. By having 
one large opening at the middle of the ceiling, there is 
less likelihood of removing any fresh, incoming air than 
would be the case if numerous smaller exits were placed 
near the wall and opening into the same shaft that takes 
up the floor air, an arrangement not infrequently recom- 
mended and used. 

The number and location of inlets and outlets (except 



THE DAIRY HERD 97 

the outlet at the ceiHng) are shown in Fig^. i8. Numer- 
ous small inlets have the advantage of causing a better 
distribution of the cold, incoming air than could be se- 
cured by fewer, but larger openings. 

On the other hand, the outlets should be few and com- 
paratively large, which will aid in creating draft. 

The fresh air intakes consist of air-tight shafts with 
cross-sectional areas of about 50 square inches. The 
shafts are built right in the wall, and open near the 
floor on the outside and near the ceiling on the inside. 
It is absolutely necessary to have the outside openings 
at least several feet below the inside openings, otherwise 
the warm inside air would rush out instead of the cold, 
outside air going in. 

The main air outlets may be placed where they are 
least troublesome. In the barn plans herewith presented, 
they are placed in the box stalls and communicate with 
the main barn floor by means of registers in the wall. 

The size of these registers is that of the cross-sectional 
area of the shafts. 

To secure effective work with the King system of 
ventilation three things are essential : ( i ) to have the 
ventilating shafts air-tight; (2) to have the outlet shafts 
extend to the highest point of the barn; and (3) to have 
the barn as nearly air-tight as possible. 

Hay Loft. With a perfectly tight ceiling and with 
the hay chute in the feed room, there is no objection 
whatever to having a loft above the stable for the stor- 
age of roughage. Indeed such a loft has two distinct 
advantages: it helps to keep the stable warm and re- 
duces the labor in feeding. 

Doors. Two doors should be provided at either end 
of the barn, as shown in Fig. 18. The outside doors 



98 DAIRY FARMING 

may be of the roller type, but on the inside it is desir- 
able to have swing doors. The latter fit tighter and thus 
aid in makins: the barn warmer during- the winter. 



DAIRY HOUSE. 

Where Needed. Milk producers who patronize cream- 
eries and cheese factories do not require a special dairy 
house. For such producers the milk room illustrated in 
Fig. 1 8 will answer. But where butter is made upon 
the farm or where the cream and milk are retailed, it is 
essential to have a rather small building devoted 
exclusively to dairy purposes. 

Location. The dairy house should be located upon 
a well drained spot and as conveniently as possible. 
The surroundings for some distance should be clean and 
entirely free from bad odors. 

General Plan. This is fully illustrated in Fig. 26. 
A boiler is needed to supply the necessary hot water 
and steam for cleaning as well as for heating purposes. 
For power either a gasoline engine, steam engine or 
tread power may be used. (See Chapter XV.) 

The wash room is provided with a wash sink, a place 
for steaming cans, pails, etc., and shelves upon which the 
utensils are inverted immediately after scalding. The 
shelves are arranged in front of a large window facing 
south so that everything placed upon them will receive 
the disinfectant action of sunlight. 

In the 12x18 foot space, which constitutes the main 
work room, such apparatus is placed as is required for 
the particular purpose. There is room for apparatus 
not shown in the illustration, such as ice cream freezer, 
milk bottle filler, etc. The illustration shows a separate 
churn and butter worker, but for large dairies having 



THB DAIRY HERD 
6ourH 



99 




GROUND PLAN 

DAIRY HOU^SE: 

/s'xza' 

Fig. 26. -Plan for Dairy House. 



LOFC, 



100 DAIRY FARMING 

40 or more cows, a combined churn and worker of 
suitable capacity is recommended. 

A store room is essential for the storage of butter 
packages, butter wrappers, salt, milk bottles, sulphuric 
acid, and reserve supplies of various kinds, such as 
strainers, dippers, pails, cans, Babcock glassware, etc. A 
testing table may be placed in this room as indicated 
in Fig. 26. Steam and the odors from the sulphuric 
acid must be strictly avoided in this room. All waste 
from the test bottles should be promptly removed from 
the building. 

Construction. In the construction of a dairy house 
sanitary features should be made paramount. The floor 
should be built of concrete, and it is desirable to have the 
lower four or six feet of the wall finished with cement. 
Indeed it is a distinct advantage to have the entire walls 
covered with hard finish of some kind to make them 
readily cleanable. The ceiling should be about 12 feet 
high and made of well matched ceiling lumber. A venti- 
lating shaft should extend from the middle of the ceiling 
to the top of the roof to carry off vapors and impure 
air. Ample light should be provided, especially in the 
wash room where a great deal of sunlight is needed. A 
strong foundation constructed of stone, concrete or brick 
is important. The foundation should extend well above 
ground to preserve the lumber resting on it from decay. 
It is essential also to have air-tight walls to eliminate 
extremes of temperature. A high degree of insulation 
necessitates two dead air spaces in the wall. 

Ice House. As a rule it is best to provide a separate 
ice house; and every dairyman located near one of 
nature's ice factories should lay in an abundant supply of 
ice. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

HANDLING FARM MANURE. 

Value of Manure Per Cow. The value of the 
manure from a cow depends primarily upon the char- 
acter of the feed supplied her. Feeds rich in fertilizing 
constituents will produce manure correspondingly rich 
in them. On an average 75% of the fertilizing con- 
stituents in feeds are recovered in the manure. The 
Cornell station finds that the value of the manure from 
cows averaging 1000 pounds live weight, is $29.27 per 
cow per year. This may be regarded as a very fair 
average. 

Relative Value of Liquid and Solid Manure. The 
urine, as a rule, is much richer in fertilizing constituents 
than the dung. It contains more than half the nitrogen 
and nearly all of the potash voided by the animal. Prac- 
tically all of the phosphoric acid, however, is found in 
the solid excreta. The fact that the larger portion of 
the fertilizing constituents is found in the urine, empha- 
sizes the importance of carefully saving all this portion 
of the voidings. 

How to Save the Urine. To save all of the liquid 
manure, it is necessary, in the first place, to have water- 
tight gutters and floors. Nothing is better in this respect 
than concrete. 

The next requirement is a sufficient amount of clean, 
porous bedding to absorb all of the liquid. Straw, 
especially if cut up somewhat, makes excellent bedding 

101 



102 DAIRY FARMING 

material. It is clean and holds a great deal of moisture. 
Planer shavings also answer the purpose satisfactorily. 

In addition to this it is desirable to use some powdered 
absorbents like ground phosphate rock and gypsum. 
These materials not only absorb moisture but also absorb 
ammonia as it is liberated from the manure, thus saving 
valuable volatile manurial constituents and at the same 
time purifying the air of the barn. 

Sources of Loss of Manurial Constituents. Losses 
of manurial constituents may be considered under two 
heads: (i) those occasioned by leaching, and (2) those 
caused by bacterial action or fermentation processes. 
Where no precaution against leaching and fermentation 
are taken, more than half the value of the manure is 
easily lost. 

Loss Through Lea'ching. Experiments have shown 
that manure as ordinarily placed in a pile will lose about 
50% of its value when left exposed to the weather for a 
period of six months. Every rain washes a certain per- 
centage of the soluble manurial constituents away from 
the pile. That heavy losses occur in this way is evident 
from the dark liquor which runs away from a manure 
heap that has been exposed to the rain. Frequently for 
convenience of handling, the manure is piled close to the 
barn and directly under the eaves drops, where the 
amount of water that pours over it becomes very con- 
siderable. 

Losses from leaching can be entirely avoided by placing 
the manure in a shallow concrete pit provided with a roof. 
Even the concrete floor may be done away with if the 
ground is clayey, closely packed and so sloped that no- 
water from without can drain into the pit. No farmer 
can afiford to be without a covered storage for manure. 



THE DAIRY HERD . 103 

Losses Through Fermentation. Manure is a medium 
exceedingly rich in bacterial* life. Many species of bac- 
teria are at work decomposing the organic matter, break- 
ing up higher compounds into lower compounds and 
accomplishing what is ordinarily designated the rotting 
of the manure. In the fermentation or rotting process 
the nitrogen compounds are broken up into ammonia, 
which readily escapes from the manure pile. Evidence 
of such escape is found in the ammoniacal odors that 
emanate from loosely packed manure, such, for example, 
as that procured from horses. 

This ammoniacal fermentation can be largely reduced 
by packing the manure tight so as to exclude the air 
as much as possible. Most of the bacteria concerned in 
the liberation of ammonia must have air for their devel- 
opment, and hence their action is reduced in proportion 
as the air is excluded from the manure heap. 

On the other hand, some species of bacteria con- 
cerned in the liberation of nitrogen, namely, the denit- 
rifying bacteria, require no air for their growth and 
development. Yet the loss from this class of bacteria 
is relatively so small that, while the exclusion of air 
favors their development, every effort should be made to 
keep the manure heap as air-tight as possible, so as to 
minimize the loss from the air-loving bacteria. 

Ammonia or Nitrogen "Fixers." While the loss of 
ammonia from the manure heap can be materially reduced 
by tight packing, more or less of it is bound to be formed 
under the best packing possible. To prevent the escape 
of this ammonia it is necessary to add to the manure 
something which will "fix" or hold the ammonia. Mate- 
rials used for this purpose are known as nitrogen or am- 



* For definition of bacteria, see page H&. 



104 



DAIRY FARMING 



monia fixers. Ground phosphate rock and gypsum are 
excellent materials to use for this purpose. These ma- 
terials should be added to the gutter in the barn, since 
they not only act as ammonia fixers, but are also excellent 
absorbents. On the whole the ground phosphate rock 
is preferable to the gypsum. The latter is sulphate of 
lime, and is commonly known as land plaster. Dry earth 
containing a great deal of humus is also valuable as 
an absorbent and ammonia fixer. 

Hauling Manure Directly Upon the Land. If the 
manure can be hauled upon ground where there is no 
danger of its being washed away, the most economical 
plan is to spread it upon the land as quickly as it is 
formed. Under such conditions there will be practically 
no loss from leaching and fermentation, and, moreover, 
what is of no little importance, the manure is handled 
with the least amount of labor. As a rule it is safest 
to spread the manure upon some growing crop. 

Manure Carriers. A convenient and labor-saving 
piece of apparatus upon a dairy farm is an elevated 
manure carrier like that shown in Fig. 27. This carrier 




Fig. 27. — LiLter Carrier. 



THE DAIRY HERD 105 

is suspended from a steel rope, and by a push of the 
hand it can be sent a distance of several hundred feet 
to unload itself and to return unaided to the barn. The 
unaided return is made possible by slanting the rope 
somewhat toward the barn. It dumps itself by means 
of an automatic attachment placed at the point where it is 
expected to unload. The convenience afforded by such 
a carrier is especially great during the winter, when the 
stable may be cleaned without leaving the barn. The 
carrier cable should be placed between the two rows 
of cows extendins: the full length of the stable. 



CHAPTER XV. 

POWER ON THE FARM. 

The use of some form of power upon farms has fre- 
quently been recommended in the past, but never before 
has its use been more urgent than at the present time. 
The increasing- scarcity of labor, the rapid increase of 
hand separators and silos, and the general convenience 
it affords, have made power an actual necessity upon 
progressive dairy farms. 

The kind of power needed upon a dairy farm depends 
upon certain conditions. If a tread power is used for 
exercising the bull, this will serve satisfactorily for sep- 
arating milk, pumping water, and doing other light work. 
Where a milk house is used and butter is made upon the 
farm a small steam engine may be made to do any light 
work economically. But the use of either the tread power 
or the small steam engine fails to provide the necessary 
power for cutting corn for the silo, sawing wood, grind- 
ing feed, or doing other heavy work. 

Every modern dairy farm must have a silo, and it is 
at silo filling time that we usually experience the great- 
est need for some form of power. With none of our own 
we are obliged to hire or borrow, a practice which often 
compels us to wait till the corn is past its prime. More- 
over it is frequently impossible to hire power, no matter 
how much we may wish to do so. Where good silage is 
desired it should be made at the proper time, and this 
can be done with certainty only when we own the power. 

Where power for the heavier work can not be con- 

106 



THE DAIRY HERD 



107 



veniently hired or borrowed, it is believed that the best 
solution for the farm power problem is the gasoline en- 
gine. Such an engine can be used for a great variety of 
purposes and practically every day of the year. 

Besides running the ensilage cutter, cream separator 
and possibly a milking machine, the engine may be used 
to pump water, to run the washing machine, corn sheller, 
grindstone, saw, churn and grist mill. When placed as 



GRI<5r MILL 



•s>sw 



ENGINE 



■S£Pi^R^rO/f 



CCONT£R SHAFT' 



GR/NO CORN 



VVH-SH M/{CH//si£ 



Fig. 28.— Possible Uses of Gasoline Engine. 



shown in Fig. 28 several of these machines may be run 
at the same time. 

Many dairy farmers have felt justified in going to the 
expense of purchasing gasoline power solely for running 
the cream separator. For this purpose a two-horse power 
engine suffices ; but it would be greater economy to in- 
crease the original outlay somewhat and secure an eight- 
horse power engine, one that could be used for the heavier 



108 DAIRY FARMING 

work of cutting ensilage and. corn stover, as well as run- 
ning a saw and grist mill. 

This is an age of machinery, and we believe the time 
is not far distant when the farmer will make use of 
power whenever this can be made to take the place of 
hired labor. Power will not only afford greater con- 
venience but will curtail the running expenses of the 
farm. 

If, for example, we assume that one hour is required 
daily in running the separator, and another in pump- 
ing water for stock, the total time consumed in 
this work in one year would be 730 hours, or 73 days of 
10 hours each. At $1 a day, the cost of separating and 
pumping would amount to ^y^ a year. With a gasoline 
engine running the pump and separator at the same 
time, this work could be done in 365 hours. Allowing 
6c per hour for gasoline and oil, which is a high esti- 
mate, the cost of doing the above work with an engine 
would be $21.90, or less than one-third of what it can 
be done for with hired labor. This saving is equivalent 
to about 25 per cent on the investment of the engine, if 
used for no other purpose than separating milk and 
pumping water. 

At silo filling time the engine should be mounted on 
a suitable base near the silo, where it is expected to re- 
main only during the filling of the silo. The remainder 
of the year it may be placed as indicated in the above 
illustration. 

There are plenty of simple and smooth-running gaso- 
line engines upon the market, and in purchasing care 
should be taken to get one in which these two qualities 
are most conspicuous. 

A possible objection to the use of gasoline engines for 



THE DAIRY HERD 109 

tlairy purposes is the trouble from gas odor where there 
is any tendency to laxness in the care of machinery. 
Where precautions are taken against leakage of gas or 
gasoline, and where the exhaust is properly conducted 
away, there should be no trouble from gas odors. 

The fuel cost of running a gasoline engine may be 
stated as follows: When gasoline is worth loc per 
gallon, gasoline power wdll cost ic per brake horse 
power per hour. 



CHAPTER XVI 

DISEASES AND AILMENTS OE DAIRY CATTLE. 

Prevention. The old adage, "An ounce of preven- 
tion is worth a pound of cure," is as true to-day as 
ever. The common aihnents with which cattle are 
afflicted can be largely prevented by correct feeding, 
comfortable and sanitary housing, gentle treatment, and 
by using every precaution possible against infection from 
contagious diseases. 

Digestive disorders are the result of injudicious feed- 
ing, and these may be the forerunner of a retinue of 
various other disorders. Exposure to severe cold and 
cold rains, and confinement in foul and unventilated 
stables are predisposing causes to various diseases. Many 
ailments are caused, either directly or indirectly, by al- 
lowing cows to lie on cold concrete floors, by chasing 
with dogs and by compelling them to walk and stand on 
slippery, highly inclined floors. 

Great aid has been rendered in the prevention of dis- 
eases through the rapid development of medical science 
in pointing out the nature and causes of the various dis- 
eases with which cattle are afflicted. Every dairyman 
should have an intelligent understanding of the role 
which bacteria (for definition of bacteria see p. 146) 
play in the dissemination of diseases which could be 
largely avoided by proper quarantine and methods of 
disinfection. 

Quarantine and Disinfection. By quarantining is 
meant the separation of the diseased from the undiseased 

110 



THE DAIRY HERD HI 

animals. If an animal is known to be affected with some 
transmissible disease, its prompt removal will usually 
spare the rest of the animals in the herd from the dis- 
ease, especially if such removal is accompanied by proper 
methods of disinfection. The latter refers to the destruc- 
tion of the causal agents of the disease by the use of 
germicides or disinfectants, substances which have the 
power of killing bacteria and allied organisms. 

Disinfectants. The following is a list of well-known 
disinfectants : 



Boiling water applied for 20 minutes. 

A 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid. 

A 2 per cent solution of zenolium. 

A 2 per cent solution of chloro-naptholeum. 

A 5 per cent solution of copper sulfate. 

A solution of 1-2000 of mercuric chloride. 

A 2 per cent solution of creolin. 

A I -1000 solution of chlorid of zinc 



Purgatives. A purgative is a substance used to in- 
duce action of the bowels. Among the common purga- 
tives the following may be mentioned : i to 2 pints of 
raw linseed oil ; a mixture of i pound of Epsom salts 
and I to 2 ounces of ginger, dissolved in 2 pints of warm 
water; i pound of Glauber salts dissolved in water; and 
I pint of castor oil. 

As a rule the best thing to do at the first signs of ill- 
ness, such as loss of appetite, failure to chew the cud, 
dull eyes, dry muzzle, parched skin, rough coat, etc., 
is to administer a good purgative. This alone is fre- 
quently sufficient to relieve the trouble. 



112 DAIRY FARMING 



MILK FEVER. 

Causes. Overfeeding, lack of exercise, impure air, 
constipation, and drinking cokl water are common causes 
of milk fever. Withdrawing all the milk from the udder 
during the first 24 hours after calving is claimed to be 
conducive to the disease. Furthermore, heavy milkers 
are far more subject to the disease than medium or small 
milkers. 

Symptoms. Restlessness followed by a weakening of 
the muscles, causing the animal finally to stagger and 
fall. The cow usually lies on her breast bone with her 
head completely drawn around to one side. The udder 
becomes soft and empty, pulse weak and rapid, the tem- 
perature falls below normal, and the animal may become 
completely unconscious. 

Treatment. Fortunately there is available now a very 
simple, sure, and inexpensive treatment for milk fever. 
The treatment consists in filling the udder with sterile 
air by means of a syringe which draws the air through 
a tube containing absorbent cotton. Such a syringe can 
be obtained at very small cost from the manufacturers 
who advertise extensively through the dairy press, and 
every dairyman should possess one so as to be prepared 
to meet emergencies promptly. 

Before injecting the air, the hands, teats, udder, and 
the tube that is to be inserted into the teats, should be 
carefully disinfected. This done, each quarter of the 
udder is thoroughly inflated with air, kneading and rub- 
bing the udder as much as possible during the process 
to secure a thorough and rapid diffusion of the air. As 
soon as each quarter is filled, a wide band is tied around 
the top of the teat to prevent leakage of air. These 



THE DAIRY HERD 113 

bands should not be drawn any tighter than necessary 
and may be removed soon after the cow gets on her feet. 
Repeat the treatment if necessary. 

The treatment above described usually brings relief 
within a few hours. In a number of emergencies cows 
have been successfully treated by pumping unfiltered air 
into the udder with a bicycle pump ; but this is liable to 
result in serious infection of the udder and should be 
practiced only in an emergency. 

The injection of a gallon of warm, soapy water into 
the rectum is also desirable. Never administer drenches 
when the animal is partially unconscious. 

ABORTION. 

By abortion is meant the premature birth of the calf. 
Two forms of this ailment are common: (i) con- 
tagious abortion caused by bacteria; and (2) accidental 
abortion caused by a serious nervous shock. The latter 
may result from external or internal injuries, drinking 
cold or stagnant water, bad nutrition, exposure to in- 
clement weather, impure atmosphere, and various con- 
stitutional diseases. Whenever abortions occur appar- 
ently without cause, they should be treated as contagious. 

Contagious Abortion. This is a very menacing dis- 
ease among dairy cattle. It is caused by bacteria which 
find their way into the reproductive organs. The disease 
can be successfully combatted only by rigid methods of 
disinfection and prompt quarantining of the aborting 
animals. The dead offspring, afterbirth, and stable litter 
should at once be burned, or buried and covered with 
quick lime. The stalls and walls should be washed with 
a I -1000 solution of corrosive sublimate, while the floor 
may be disinfected with a liberal amount of quick lime. 



114 DAIRY FARMING 

The vagina and uterus should be thoroughly disinfected 
daily with chlorid of zinc, creolin, or corrosive sublimate 
solution of proper strength until the cow ceases discharg- 
ing. The same antiseptic treatment should be applied 
frequently to the external genitals and adjacent region 
of uninfected cows. If the afterbirth is retained longer 
than 24 hours it should be removed by hand. 

Cows that have aborted should not be bred until they 
have ceased discharging, and it is important to keep them 
from the rest of the herd until they have dropped a full- 
grown calf. 

A prolific means of spreading the infection of this dis- 
ease is the bull. A bull that has served infected cows 
will infect other cows he serves unless his penis and 
sheath have been thoroughly disinfected. One to two 
quarts of 2 per cent coal tar disinfectant worked up into 
the sheath will answer the purpose satisfactorily. 

GARGET. 

Causes. Injuries of the udder, overfeeding, exposure 
to severe cold, overcrowding of the udder by skipping a 
milking, and germ infection. 

Symptoms. Watery, stringy milk, frequently contain- 
ing blood ; swelling and hardening of one, two, or all 
quarters of the udder, which has a more or less reddish, 
inflamed appearance ; and the formation of pus in the 
more advanced stages. 

Treatment. Give 1^4 pounds of Epsom salts and i 
ounce of ginger, dissolved in a quart of tepid water. Sup- 
port the udder by means of a wide bandage tied at the 
top line of the animal, and pack a layer of bran between 
the bandage and the diseased portion of the udder. Heat 
the bran by pouring hot water over it. The hot water 



THE DAIRY HERD 115 

treatment should be repeated at short intervals and should 
be followed by thorough rubbing of the udder with lard 
or raw linseed oil, a treatment which may be continued 
to advantage for 20 minutes. The rubbing materially 
relieves the swelling and stimulates the secretion of milk. 
It is important also to milk the diseased quarter or quar- 
ters clean at short intervals. The air treatment for milk 
fever has also been recommended for garget. 

NON-INFECTIOUS "CALF SCOURS." 

Causes. Feeding cold, dirty, old, or too much, milk; 
drinking cold or impure water ; irregularities in feeding ; 
feeding from unscalded buckets ; and confinement in dark, 
cold, or filthy stalls. 

Treatment. Reduce the amount of milk; feed the 
milk fresh and at body temperature ; feed not less than 
three times a day, and use only clean, sterilized milk 
buckets. Give only pure water at body temperature, and 
add formalin to the milk in the proportion of one part 
formalin to 4,000 parts of milk until the diarrhea or 
"scours" is checked. The scouring is usually due to the 
action of fermentative or putrefactive bacteria which are 
killed or checked by the action of the formalin. 

INFECTIOUS ''calf SCOURS." 

This disease is commonly known as white scours and 
is caused by bacteria. It affects calves usually from a 
few hours to a few days old, and is very fatal. The dis- 
charges are usually of a rather light color and have an 
offensive odor. Medicine is of little avail. The disease 
must therefore be combatted by methods of prevention. 
Washing the vagina of the cow with disinfectant solu- 
tion shortly before calving, disinfecting the navel of the 



116 DAIRY FARMING 

new-born calf at short intervals for a few days, and plac- 
ing- the calf in a disinfected stall, are good measures of 
prevention. 

INDIGESTION. 

Causes. Overfeeding; feeding too much coarse, indi- 
gestible feed ; sudden changes of feed ; stale, moldy, frosted 
or decomposing feeds ; irregularities of feeding ; and lack 
of exercise. 

Symptoms. Loss of appetite, suspended rumination, 
dull, sickly appearance, and usually constipation. 

Treatment. Feed light ration containing laxative and 
green feeds, such as linseed meal, pasture, roots, silage, 
etc. Supply plenty of water and give i to i^ pounds 
of Epsom salts and i ounce ginger, or i to 2 pints of 
raw linseed oil, according to the degree of constipation. 

RETENTION OF AFTERBIRTH. 

If the afterbirth does not come away within 48 hours 
it should be removed by hand. Carefully disinfect the 
hand and arm, grease the same and insert into the womb, 
where the afterbirth must be carefully loosened from the 
button-like projections to which it is attached. As soon 
as removed, flush out the vagina and womb with warm 
disinfectant solution. 

When cows are provided with laxative feed and warm 
water shortly before and after calving, the afterbirth will 
almost always drop away in due time. If the bowels are 
not perfectly loose at calving time, administer a purga- 
tive. 

The retention of the afterbirth for a longer period than 
48 hours will cause it gradually to decompose and slough 
ofif, causing a foul discharge from the vagina and seri- 



THE DAIRY HERD 117 

ously impairing- the health of the animal. Blood poison- 
ing may also result from the prolonged retention of the 
afterbirth. 

INVERSION o^ The; womb. 

Severe straining after calving may cause the further 
portion of the womb to protrude through the opening 
leading into it, thus causing an inversion of the organ. 
In this inverted condition a portion or all of it may pass 
out of the vagina. As soon as this is noticed, wash and 
disinfect the protruded portion and push it back into its 
normal position. This done, apply a truss or pessary to 
hold the womb in position until the straining or expul- 
sive movements cease. 

TUBERCULOSIS. 

Cause. This disease is caused by a specific organism 
known as the tubercle bacillus. The germs are commonly 
inhaled, though they may also be taken into the body 
through the food. Unsanitary stabling, lack of nourish- 
ment, and inherent constitutional weakness, are greatly 
responsible for the prevalence of this disease. 

Symptoms. A short cough, enlargement of the lymph 
glands at the throat, emaciation, and a general unthrifty 
appearance. In its early stages it is difficult, however, to 
detect the disease except by the tuberculin test. 

The Tuberculin Test. The usefulness of this test as 
a diagnostic agent rests upon the fact ihat when a sub- 
stance called "tuberculin" is injected under the skin of 
an animal, the injection is followed by a rise of tempera- 
ture in infected animals, while in those unaffected the 
temperature remains the same. It must be added, how- 
ever, that in the last stages of the disease, tuberculin fails 



118 DAIRY FARMING 

as a diagnostic agent, but this is of little consequence 
since the disease is readily recognized in these stages by 
a physical examination. 

Method of Making the Tuberculin Test. In making 
this test the following particulars must be observed : 

1. Secure the necessary tuberculin from the govern- 
ment. 

2. Secure a clinical thermometer, a sharp, hollow 
needle, and a graduated, hypodermic syringe from deal- 
ers in veterinary instruments. 

3. Make the test during the cooler season of the year. 

4. Do not test cows shortly before or after calving. 

5. Do not test cows that are in heat, or suffering from 
garget or other diseases. 

6. Do not allow cows to drink very cold water. 

7. Keep the animals in a normal condition as to feed, 
confinement, etc., during the test. 

8. Do not test animals which show a temperature as 
high as 103° F. 

Proceed with the test as follows : First ascertain the 
normal temperature of the cows by holding a clinical 
thermometer in the rectum for about five minutes. Three 
observations are necessary: One at 6 a. m., another at 
noon, and the last at 6 p. m. At 10 p. m., the same day, 
inject under the skin at the neck or shoulder, 2 cubic 
centimeters of tuberculin for animals of about 1,000 
pounds live weight and proportionally more for heavier 
cows. At 6 o'clock the next morning take the tempera-, 
ture again as before, but at intervals of two hours until 
live or six readings have been taken. If the maximum 
temperature after the injection is two or more degrees 
higher than it was before the injection of the tuberculin, 
the animal is considered tuberculous. If the rise of tem- 



THE DAIRY HEI^D 119 

perature is one and a half degrees, the case may be con- 
sidered suspicious. 

The needle and place of injection should be disinfected, 
and care should be exercised not to excite the cows dur- 
ing any period of the test. Do not retest for tuberculosis 
within Go days. As a rule every cow in the herd should 
be tested once a year for tuberculosis. 

BARRENNESS. 

Causes. Lack of exercise, improper feeding, in-and- 
in breeding, closing of the mouth of the womb, and an 
acid condition of the vagina. 

Treatment. If overfat reduce the amount of feed and 
give plenty of exercise. If the mouth of the womb is 
closed, open by inserting the forefinger or by applying 
solid extract of Belladonna to the part. An acid con- 
dition of the vagina may be overcome by thorough syring- 
ing with 2 per cent solution of bicarbonate of soda a 
few hours previous to service. A treatment much recom- 
mended lately is known as the yeast treatment and is 
used as follows : Dis.solve an ordinary compressed yeast 
cake in a cup of warm water and allow to ferment. Add 
this to a quart of warm water and use to wash out the 
vagina some hours before service. The vagina should 
be washed out with soapy water just previous to the 
injection of the yeast .solution. 

BLOAT OR II OVEN. 

Causes. Overeating, suddenly turning cows on rich, 
green feed, like clover pasture, and fermentation of the 
feed. There is as a rule a great deal of gas produced, 
causing a great distention of the left side. 

Treatment. Immediately place a gag in the mouth. 



120 %DAIRY FARMING 

and in mild cases, give an ounce of spirits of turpentine 
and one-half pint of raw linseed oil. Keep the animal 
moving and pour cold water on the loins. When relief 
comes, administer a purgative. 

In severe cases tap the left side (paunch) with a 
slender knife or a trocar. Tap at a point equidistant 
from the point of the hip, the last rib, and the spinal 
column. 

TEAT TROUBLES. 

Hard Milkers. Hard milking is caused by too small 
an opening in the teat. Enlarge the opening by using a 
teat bistoury when the cow is in full flow of milk. 

Sore or Chapped Teats. Due to exposure to cold, 
wet weather and rough handling. Treat with lard or 
vaseline. 

Warts. May be removed by applying lunar caustic. 

Closed or Obstructed Teats. Caused by injury or 
clotted milk. Keep open by inserting a milk tube. 

Leaky Teats. Prevent unusual distention by milking 
three or four times daily. If this is not sufficient, a fairly 
tight fitting bandage, like the finger of a glove, may be 
placed around the teat. 

STRINGY OR ROPEY MILK. 

This is due to certain species of bacteria which find 
their way into the udder through the teats. These bac- 
teria are associated with filth and the trouble must be 
overcome by keeping cows away from filthy places. 
This trouble should not be confused with garget. 

BLOODY MILK. 

This is usually due to an injury to the udder. Bathe 
the udder with hot water and apply lard. 



THE DAIRY HERD 121 

SELF-SUCKING COWS. 

Prevent by putting a halter on the cow with a strong, 
stiff piece of leather running over the nose. Fill this 
strip of leather with sharp nails. 

LICE. 

Two per cent coal tar disinfectants are usually used 
for killing lice. The Oklahoma station recommends a 
"kerosene emulsion," which is made by using ^2 pound 
hard soap, 2 gallons of a cheap grade of kerosene and 
I gallon of water. Cut up the soap and dissolve in hot 
water; then add the kerosene and thoroughly mix. Be- 
fore applying to the animals dilute this mixture with 
7 gallons of water. Apply by means of a sponge, brush, 
or spray pump. 

WARDLES OR GRUBS. 

These are found just below the skin in the backs of 
cattle and constitute the larval form of the ox bot-fly 
or heel-fly. As they develop they cause swellings in 
the back and are thus easily recognized. Wherever there 
is a swelling there is also an opening in the skin through 
which the grubs may be easily squeezed and killed. They 
may also be destroyed by the application of kerosene. 



PART II. 

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS. 



CHAPTER XVII. 



MILK. 



Milk, in a broad sense, may be defined as the normal 
secretion of the mammary glands of animals that suckle 
their young. It is the only food found in Nature con- 
taining all the elements necessary to sustain life. More- 
over it contains these elements in the proper propor- 
tions and in easily digestible and assimilable form. 




Microscopic appearance of milk showing relative size of fat globules and 
bacteria. — Russell's Dairy Bacteriology. 

Physical Properties. Milk is a whitish opaque fluid 
possessing a sweetish taste and a faint odor suggestive 
of cows' breath. It has an amphioteric reaction, that is, 

123 



124 DAIRY FARMING 

it is both acid and alkaline. This double reaction is due 
largely to acid and alkaline salts and possibly to small 
quantities of organic acids. 

Milk has an average normal specific gravity of 1.032, 
with extremes rarely exceeding 1.029 ^"<^ i-033. After 
standing a few^ moments it loses its homogenous character. 
Evidence of this we have in the "rising of the cream." 
This is due to the fact that milk is not a perfect solution 
but an emulsion. All of the fat, the larger portion of the 
casein, and part of the ash are in suspension. 

In consistency milk is slightly more viscous than water, 
the viscosity increasing with the decrease in temperature. 
It is also exceedingly sensitive to odors, possessing great 
absorption properties. This teaches the necessity of plac- 
ing milk in clean pure surroundings. 

Chemical Composition. The composition of milk is 
very complex and variable, as will be seen from the fol- 
lowing figures: 

Average Composition of Normal Milk. A com- 
pilation of figures from various American £.r- 
periment Stations. 

Water 87.1^ 

Butter fat 3-9^ 

Casein 2.9^ 

Albumen 5^ 

Sugar 4-9^ 

Ash 7^ 

Fibrin Trace. 

Galactase Trace. 



100. o^ 



The great variations in the composition of milk are 
shown by the figures from Koenig, given below : 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 125 

Maximum. Minimum. 

Water 90.69 80.32 

Fat 6.47 1.67 

Casein 4.23 1.79 

Albumen i . 44 .25 

Sugar 6.03 2. II 

Ash 1. 21 .35 

These figures represent quite accurately the maximum 
and minimum composition of milk except that the maxi- 
mum for fat is too low. The author has known cows 
to yield milk testing 7.6% fat, and records show tests 
even higher than this. 

BUTTER FAT. 

This is the most valuable as well as the most variable 
constituent of milk. It constitutes about 83% of butter 
and is an indispensable constituent of the many kinds of 
whole milk cheese now found upon the market. It also 
measures the commercial value of milk and cream, and 
is used as an index of the value of milk for butter and 
cheese production. 

Physical Properties. Butter fat is suspended in milk 
in the form of extremely small globules numbering about 
100,000,000 per drop of milk. These globules vary con- 
siderably in size in any given sample, some being five 
times as large as others. The size of the globules is 
affected mostly by the period of lactation. As a rule the 
size decreases and the number increases with the advance 
of the period. In strippers' milk the globules are some- 
times so small as to render an efficient separation of the 
cream and the churning of same impossible. 

The size of the fat globules also varies with different 
breeds. In Uie Jersey breed the diameter of the globule 



126 DAIRY FARMING 

is one eight-thousandth of an inch, in the Holstein one 
twelve-thousandth, while the average for all breeds is 
about one ten-thousandth. 

Night's milk usually has smaller globules than morn- 
ing's. The size of the globules also decreases with the 
age of the cow. 

The density or specific gravity of butter fat at ioo° F. 
is .91 and is quite constant. Its melting point varies 
between wide limits, the average being 92° F. 

Composition of Butter Fat. According to Richmond, 
butter fat has the following composition : 

Butyrin 3.85 | 

Caproin 3 60 I Soluble or volatile. 

Caprylin 55 \ 



Caprin 1.90 

Laurin 7.40 

Myristin 20.20 

Palmitin 25.70 

Stearin 1.80 

Olein, etc 35 • 00 



Insoluble or 
non-volatile. 



This shows butter fat to be composed of no less than 
nine distinct fats, which are formed by the union of 
glycerine with the corresponding fatty acids. Thus, buty- 
rin is a compound of glycerine and butyric acid ; palmitin, 
a compound of glycerine and palmitic acid, etc. The 
most important of these acids are palmitic, oleic, and 
butyric. 

Palmitic acid is insoluble, melts at 144° F., and forms 
(with stearic acid) the basis of hard fats. 

Oleic acid is insoluble, melts at 57° F., and forms the 
basis of soft fats. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 127 

Butyric acid is soluble and is a liquid which solidifies 
at — 2° F. and melts again at 28° F. 

Insoluble Fats. A study of these fats is essential in 
elucidating the variability of the churning temperature 
of cream. As a rule this is largely determined by the 
relative amounts of hard and soft fats present in butter 
fat. Other conditions the same, the harder the fat the 
higher the churning temperature. Scarcely any two milks 
contain exactly the same relative amounts of hard and 
soft fats, and it is for this reason that the churning tem- 
perature is such a variable one. 

The relative amounts of hard and soft fats are influ- 
enced by: 

1. Breeds. 

2. Feeds. 

3. Period of lactation. * 

4. Individuality of cows. 

The butter fat of Jerseys is harder than that of Hol- 
steins and, therefore, requires a relatively high churning 
temperature, the difference being about six degrees. 

Feeds have an important influence upon the character 
of the butter fat. Cotton seed meal and bran, for example, 
materially increase the percentage of hard fats. Gluten 
feeds and linseed meal, on the other hand, produce a soft 
butter fat. 

With the advance of the period of lactation the per- 
centage of hard fat increases. This chemical change, to- 
gether with the physical change which butter fat under- 
goes, makes churning difficult in the late period of lac- 
tation. 

The individuality of the cow also to a great extent 
influences the character of the butter fat. It is inherent 



128 DAIRY FARMING 

in some cows to produce a soft butter fat, in others to 
produce a hard butter fat, even in cows of the same breed. 

Soluble Fats. The sohible or volatile fats, of which 
butyrin is the most important, give milk and sweet cream 
butter their characteristic flavors. Butyrin is found only 
in butter fat and distinguishes this from all vegetable 
and other animal fats. 

The percentage of soluble fats decreases with the period 
of lactation, also with the feeding of dry feeds and those 
rich in protein. Succulent feeds and those rich in carbo- 
hydrates, according to experiments made in Holland and 
elsewhere, increase the percentage of soluble fats. This 
may partly account for the superiority of the flavor of 
June butter. 

It may be proper, also, to discuss under volatile or 
soluble fats those abnormal flavors that are imparted to 
milk, cream, and butter by weeds like garlic and wild 
onions, and by various feeds such as beet tops, rape, par- 
tially spoiled silage, etc. These flavors are undoubtedly 
due to abnormal volatile fats. 

Cows should never be fed strong flavored feeds shortly 
before milking. When this is done the odors are sure 
to be transmitted to the milk and the products therefrom. 
When, however, feeds of this kind are fed shortly after 
milking no bad effects will be noticed at the next milking. 

Albumenoids. These are nitrogenous compounds 
which give milk its high dietetic value. Casein, albumen, 
globulin, and nuclein form the albumenoids of milk, the 
casein and albumen being by far the most important. 

Casein. This is a white colloidal substance, possessing 
neither taste nor smell. It is the most important tissue- 
forming constituent of milk and forms the basis of an 
almost endless variety of cheese. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 129 

The larger portion of the casein is suspended in milk 
in an extremely finely divided amorphus condition. It is 
intimately associated with the insoluble calcium phosphate 
of milk and possibly held in chemical combination with 
this. Its study presents many difficulties, which leaves its 
exact composition still undetermined. 

Casein is easily precipitated by means of rennet extract 
and dilute acids, but the resulting precipitates are not 
identically the same. It is not coagulated by heat. 

Albumen. In composition albumen very closely re- 
sembles casein, differing from this only in not containing 
sulphur. It is soluble and unaffected by rennet, which 
causes most of it to pass into the whey in the manufacture 
of cheese. It is coagulated at a temperature of 170° F. 
It is in their behavior toward heat and rennet that casein 
and albumen radically differ. 

Milk Sugar. This sugar, commonly called lactose, has 
the same chemical composition as cane sugar, differing 
from it chiefly in possessing only a faint sweetish taste. 
It readily changes into lactic acid when acted upon by 
the lactic acid bacteria. This causes the ordinary phenom- 
enon of milk souring. The maximum amount of acid in 
milk rarely exceeds .9%, the germs usually being checked 
or killed before this amount is formed. There is there- 
fore always a large portion of the sugar left in sour milk. 
All of the milk sugar is in solution. 

Ash. Most of the ash of milk exists in solution. It 
is composed of lime, magnesia, potash, soda, phosphoric 
acid, chlorine, and iron, the soluble lime being the most 
important constituent. It is upon this that the action of 
rennet extract is dependent. For when milk is heated 
to high temperatures the soluble lime is rendered insoluble 
and rennet will no longer curdle milk. It seems also that 



130 DAIRY FARMING 

the viscosity of milk and cream is largely due to soluble 
lime salts. Cream heated to high temperatures loses its 
viscosity to such an extent that it can not be made to 
"whip." Treatment with soluble lime restores its orig- 
inal viscosity. The ash is the least variable constituent 
of milk. 

Colostrum Milk. This is the first milk drawn after 
parturition. It is characterized by its peculiar odor, yel- 
low color, broken down cells, and high content of albu- 
men which gives it its viscous, slimy appearance and 
causes it to coagulate on application of heat. 

According to Eugling the average composition of colos- 
trum milk is as follows: 

Water 71.69^ 

Fat 3.37 

Casein 483 

Albumen 15 -85 

Sugar 2 . 48 

Ash 1.78 

The secretion of colostrum milk is of very short dura- 
tion. Usually within four or five days after calving it 
assumes all the properties of normal milk. In some cases, 
however, it does not become normal till the sixth or even 
the tenth day, depending largely upon the condition of 
the animal. 

A good criterion in the detection of colostrum milk is 
its peculiar color, odor, and slimy appearance. The dis- 
appearance of these characteristics determines its fitness 
for butter production. 

Milk Secretion. Just how all of the dififerent con- 
stituents of milk are secreted is not yet definitely 
understood. But it is known that the secretion takes 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 131 

place in the udder of the cow, and principally during the 
process of milking. Further, the entire process of milk 
elaboration seems to be under the control of the nervous 
system of the cow. This accounts for the changes in flow 
and richness of milk whenever cows are subjected to 
abnormal treatment. It is well known that a change of 
milkers, the use of rough language, or the abuse of cows 
with dogs and milk stools, seriously afifects the production 
of milk and butter fat. It is therefore of the greatest 
practical importance to milk producers to treat cows 
as gently as possible, especially during the process of 
milking. 

How Secreted. The source from which the milk con- 
stituents are elaborated is the blood. It must not be sup- 
posed, however, that all the different constituents already 
exist in the blood in the form in which we find them in 
milk, for the blood is practically free from fat, casein, 
and milk sugar. These substances must then be formed in 
the cells of the udder from material supplied them by the 
blood. Thus there are in the udder cells that have the 
power of secreting fat in a manner similar to that by 
which the gastric juice is secreted in the stomach. Simi- 
larly, the formation of lactose is the result of the action 
of another set of cells whose function is to produce lac- 
tose. It is believed that the casein is formed from the 
albumen through the activity of certain other cells. The 
water, albumen, and soluble ash probably pass directly 
from the blood into the milk ducts by the process known 
as osmosis. 

Variations in the Quality of Milk. Milk from dif- 
ferent sources may vary considerably in composition, 
particularly in the percentage of butter fat. Even the 



132 DAIRY FARMING 

milk from the same cow may vary a great deal in compo- 
sition. The causes of these variations may be assigned 
to two sets of conditions : I. — Those natural to the cow. 
11. — Those of an artificial nature. 

I. QUALITY OF MILK AS AFFECTED BY NATURAL CONDI- 
TIONS. 

I. The composition of the milk of all cows undergoes 
a change with the advance of the period of lactation. 
During the first five months the composition remains prac- 
tically the same. After this, however, the milk becomes 
gradually richer until the cow "dries up." The following 
figures from Van Slyke illustrate this change: 

Month of Per cent of fat 

lactation. in milk. 



1 4 

2 4 

3 , 4 

4 4 

5 4 

6 4 

7 4 

8 4 

9 4 

10 5 



It will be noticed from these figures that the milk 
actually decreases somewhat in richness during the first 
three months of the period. But just before the cow dries 
up, it may test as high as 8%. 

2. The quality of milk also dififers with diiTerent 
breeds. Yet breed differences are less marked than those 
of the individual cows of any particular breed. 

Some breeds produce rich milk, others relatively poor 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



133 



milk. The following data obtained at the New Jersey 
Experiment Station illustrates these differences: 



Breed. 


Total 
Solids. 


Fat. 


Milk 
Sugar, 


Proteids. 


Ash. 


Ayshire 

Guernsey 

Holstein 

Tersev 


Per cent. 
12.70 
14.48 
12.12 
14.34 


Per cent. 
3.68 
5.02 
3.51 

4.78 


Per cent. 

4.84 
4.80 
4.69 
4.85 


Per cent. 
3.48 
3.92 
3.28 
3.96 


Per cent. 
.69 

.75 
.64 

.75 







3. Extremes in the composition of milk are usually 
to be ascribed to the individuality or "make up" of the 
cow. It is inherent in some cows to produce rich milk, 
in others to produce poor milk. In other words, Nature 
has made every cow to produce milk of a given richness, 
which can not be perceptibly changed except by careful 
selection and breeding for a number of generations. 



II. OUAUTY OF MILK AS AFFECTED BY ARTIFICIAL, CON- 
DITIONS. 

1. When cows are only partially milked they yield 
poorer milk than when milked clean. This is largely 
explained by the fact that the first drawn milk is always 
poorer in fat than that drawn last. Fore milk may test 
as low as .8%, while the strippings sometimes test as 
high as 14%. 

2. Fast milking increases both the quality and the 
quantity of the milk. It is for this reason that fast milkers 
are so much preferred to slow ones. 



134 DAIRY FARMING 

3. The richness of milk is also influenced by the length 
of time that elapses between the milkings. In general, 
the shorter the time between the milkings the richer the 
milk. This, no doubt, in a large measure accounts for 
the differences we often find in the richness of morning's 
and night's milk. Sometimes the morning's milk is the 
richer, at other times the evening's, depending largely 
upon the time of day the cows are milked. Milk can not, 
however, be permanently enriched by milking three times 
in stead of twice a day. 

4. Unusual excitement of any kind reduces the quality 
of milk. The person who abuses cows by dogs, milk 
stools, or boisterousness, pays dearly for it in a reduction 
of both the quality and the quantity of milk produced. 

5. Starvation also seriously affects both the quality 
and the quantity of milk. It has been repeatedly shown, in 
this country and in Europe, that under-feeding to any 
great extent results in the production of milk poor in fat. 

6. Sudden changes of feed may slightly affect the 
richness of milk, but only temporarily. 

So long as cows are fed a full ration, it is not possible 
to change the richness of milk permanently, no matter 
what the character of feed composing the ration. 

7. Irregularities of feeding and milking, exposure to 
heat, cold, rain, and flies, tend to reduce both the quantity 
and the quality of milk produced. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



THE BABCOCK TEST. 



This is a cheap and simple device for determining the 
percentage of fat in milk, cream, skim-milk, buttermilk, 
whey, and cheese. It was invented in 1890 by Dr. S. M. 
Babcock, of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion, and ranks among the leading agricultural inventions 
of modern times. The chief uses of the Babcock test may 
be mentioned as follows : 

1. It has made possible the payment for milk accord- 
ing to its quality. 

2. It has enabled butter and cheese makers to detect 
undue losses in the process of manufacture. 

3. It has made possible the grading up of dairy herds 
by locating the poor cows. 

4. It has, in a large measure, done away with the prac- 
tice of watering and skimming milk. 

Principle of the Babcock Test. The separation of 
the butter fat from milk with the Babcock test is made 
possible : 

1. By the difference between the specific gravity of 
butter fat and milk serum. 

2. By the centrifugal force generated in the tester. 

3. By burning the solids not fat with a strong acid. 
Sample for a Test. Whatever the sample to be tested, 

always eighteen grams are used for a test. In testing 
cream and cheese, the sample is weighed. For testing 
milk, skim-milk, buttermilk, and whey, weighing requires 

135 



136 DAIRY FARMING 

too much time. Indeed, with these substances weighing 
is not necessary as sufficiently accurate samples are ob- 




Fig. 29-Two styles of Babcock testers. 

tained by measuring which is the method universally em- 
ployed. In making a Babcock test it is of the greatest 
importance to secure a uniform sample of the substance 
to be tested. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 137 

Apparatus. This consists essentially of the following 
parts : A, Babcock tester ; B, milk bottle ; C, cream bottle ; 
D, skim-milk bottle ; E, pipette or milk measure ; F, acid 
measures ; G, cream scales ; H, mixing cans ; I, dividers. 

A. Babcock Tester. This machine, shown in Fig. 29, 
consists of a revolving wheel placed in a horizontal posi- 
tion and provided with swinging pockets for the bottles. 
This wheel is rotated by means of a worm wheel (lower 
machine) at the top of the tester. When the tester stops 
the pockets hang down allowing the bottles to stand up. 
As the wheel begins rotating the pockets move out causing 
the bottles to assume a horizontal position. The wheel is 
enclosed in a cast iron frame provided with a cover. 

B. Milk Bottle. This has a neck graduated to ten 
large divisions, each of which reads one per cent. Each 
large division is subdivided into five smaller ones, 
making each subdivision read .2%. The contents of the 
neck from the zero mark to the 10% mark is equivalent to 
two cubic centimeters. Since the Babcock test does not 
give the percentage of fat by volume but by weight, the 
10% scale on the neck of the bottle will, therefore, hold 
1.8 grams of fat. In other words, if the scale were filled 
with water it would hold two grams ; but fat being only 
.9 as heavy, 2 cubic centimeters of it would weigh nine- 
tenths of two grams or 1.8 grams. This is 'exactly 10% 
of 18 grams, the weight of the sample used for testing. 
A milk bottle is shown in Fig. 30. 

C. Cream Bottles. These are graduated from 30% to 
55%. A 30% bottle is shown in Fig. 31. Since cream 
usually tests more than 30%, the sample must be divided 
wher the 30% bottles are used. 



138 



DAIRY FARMING 




UtI«^ 



;34474'! 



Fig. 30. -Milk 
bottle. 



Fig. 31. -Cream 
bottle. 



Fig. 32.— Skim-milk 
bottle. 



D. Skim=milk Bottle. This bottle, shown in Fig. 32, 
is provided with a double neck, a large one to admit the 
milk, and a smaller graduated neck for fat reading. The 
entire scale reads one-half per cent. Being divided into 
ten subdivisions each subdivision reads .05%. The same 
bottle is also used for testing buttermilk. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



139 



/ 





Fig.35.- 
Acid meas- 
ure. 



E. Pipette. This holds 17.6 c.c, as shown 
in Fig. 33. Since about .1 c.c. of milk will 
adhere to the inside of the pipette it is ex- 
pected to deliver only 17.5 c.c, which is equiva- 
lent to 18 grams of normal milk. 

F. Acid Measures. In making a Babcock 
Fig.33.-Pi- test equal quantities, by volume, of acid and 

milk are used. The acid measure, shown in 
Fig. 34, holds 17.5 c.c. of acid, the amount needed for one 
test. The one shown in Fig. 35 is divided into six divisions, 
each of which holds 17.5 c.c. or one charge of acid. Where 



140 



DAIRY FARMING 



many tests are made a graduate of this kind saves time 

in filling, but should be made to hold twenty-five charges. 

H. A cream scales commonly used is illustrated in 

Pig- 36. ' ; 

Acid. The acid used in the test is commercial sul- 




Fig. 36.— Cream scales. 

phuric acid having a specific gravity of 1.82 
to 1.83. When the specific gravity of the 
acid falls below 1.82 the milk solids are not 
properly burned and particles of curd may 
appear in the fat. On the other hand, an 
acid with a specific gravity above 1.83 has 
a tendency to blacken or char the fat. 

The sulphuric acid, besides burning the 
solids not fat, facilitates the separation of 
the fat by raising the specific gravity of the 
medium in which it floats. 

Sulphuric acid must be kept in glass bot- 
tles provided with glass stoppers. Exposure 
to the air materially weakens it. 

Making a Babcock Test. The different 
indicated as follows : 

1. Thoroughly mix the sample. 

2. Immediately after mixing insert the pipette into 
the milk and suck until the milk has gone above the mark 
on the pipette, then quickly place the fore finger over the 




Fig.37.-Show- 
ing manner of 
emptying pi- 
petle. 

steps are 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



141 



top and allow the milk to run down to the mark by slowly 
relieving the pressure of the finger. 

3. Empty the milk into the bottle in the manner shown 
in Fig. 2>7- 

4. Add the acid in the same manner in which the milk 
was emptied into the bottle. 

5. Mix the acid with the milk by giving the bottle a 
slow rotary motion. 

6. Allow mixture to stand a few minutes. 

7. Shake or mix again and then place the bottle in 
the tester. 

8. Run tester four minutes at the 
proper speed. 

9. Add moderately hot water until 
contents come to the neck of the 
bottle. 

10. Whirl one minute. 

11. Add moderately hot water un- 
til contents of the bottle reach about 
the 8% mark. 

12. Whirl one minute. 

13. Read test. 




How to Read the Test. At the top 

of the fat column is usually quite a 
pronounced meniscus as shown in Fig. 
38. A less pronounced one is found 
at the bottom of the column. The fat 
should be read from the extremes of 
the fat column, i to 3, not from 2 to 4, 
when its temperature is about 140° F. 
Too high a temperature gives too high 



-8 




Fig. 38.— Fat column 
showing meniscuses. 



142 



DAIRY FARMING 



a reading, because of the expanded condition of the fat, 
while too low a temperature gives an uncertain reading. 




Fig. 40. —Milk bot- 
Fig. 39.— Waste acid jar. tie tester. 

Precautions in Making a Test. i. Be sure you have 
a fair sample. 

2. The temperature of the milk should be about 6o 
or 70 degrees. 

3. Always mix twice after acid has been added. 

4. Be sure your tester runs at the right speed. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 143 

5. Use nothing but clean, soft water in filling the 
bottles. 

6. Be sure the tester does not jar. 

7. Be sure the acid is of the right strength. 

8. Mix as soon as acid is added to milk. 

9. Do not allow the bottles to become cold before 
reading the test. 

10. Read the test twice to insure a correct reading. 
The water added to the test bottles after they have been 

whirled should be clean and pure. Water containing 
much lime seriously affects the test. Such water may 
be used, however, when first treated with a few drops of 
sulphuric acid. 

As stated before skim-milk, buttermilk, and cream are 
tested in the same way as milk, with the exception that 
the cream sample is weighed not measured. 

Cleaning Test Bottles. As soon as the test is read, 
the bottle should be emptied into an earthen jar (covered 
with a perforated board) by shaking it up and down so 
as to remove the white sediment. (Fig. 39.) It is now 
rinsed with one-third pipetteful of cleaning solution, 
which is made by dissolving about an ounce of potassium 
bichromate in one pint of sulphuric acid. Next run test 
bottle brush once up and down the neck of the bottle and 
finally rinse with hot water. 

Testing or Calibrating Milk Bottles. Fill the bottle 
to the zero mark with water, or preferably wood alco- 
hol to which a little coloring matter has been added. 
Immerse the lower section of the tester, shown in Fig. 40, 
in the contents of the bottle. If the bottle is correct, the 
contents will rise to the 5% mark. Next immerse both 
sections of the tester which will bring the contents to 
the lofo mark if the bottle is correctly calibrated. 



144 DAIRY FARMING 

It has been learned that the volume of the graduated 
part of the neck is 2 c.c. Each section of the tester is 
made to displace i c.c. when immersed in the liquid, 
hence the two sections will just fill the scale if the latter 
is correct. 

Calculating Speed of Tester. The speed at which 
a tester must be run is dependent upon the diameter of the 
wheel carrying the bottles. The larger this wheel the 
fewer the revolutions it must make per minute to effect 
a complete separation of the fat. 

In the following table by Farrington and Woll the 
necessary speed per given diameter is calculated : 

Diameter of No. of revolutions 

ti'heel of wheel 

in inches. per minute. 

10 1,074 

12. 980 

14- • 909 

16 848 

18 800 

20 759 

22 724 

24 693 

General Pointers. Black fat is caused by 

1. Too strong acid. 

2. Too much acid. 

3. Too high a temperature of the acid or the milk. 

4. Not mixing soon enough. 

5. Dropping the acid through the milk. 

Foam on top of fat is caused by hard water, and can be 
prevented by adding a few drops of sulphuric acid to the 
water. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 145 

Unclean or cloudy fat is caused by 

1. Insufficient mixing. 

2. Too low speed of tester. 

3. Too low temperature. 

4. Too weak acid. 

Curd particles in fat are caused by 

1. Too weak acid. 

2. Not enough acid. 

3. Too low temperature. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

BACTERIA AND MILK FERMENTATIONS. 

A thorough knowledge of bacteria and their action 
forms the basis of success in butter making. Indeed the 
man who is lacking such knowledge is making butter 
in the dark; his is chance work. Much attention will 
therefore be given to the study of these organisms in 
this work. 

I. BACTERIA. 

The term bacteria is applied to the smallest of living 
plants, which can be seen only under the highest powers 
of the miscroscope. Each bacterium is made up of a 
single cell. These plants are so small that it would 
require 30,000 of them laid side by side to measure an 
inch. Their presence is almost universal, being found 
in the air, water, and soil; in cold, hot, and temperate 
climates; and in living and dead as well as inorganic 
matter. 

Bacteria grow with marvelous rapidity. A single bac- 
terium is capable of reproducing itself a million times 
in twenty- four hours. They reproduce either by a simple 
division of the mother cell, thus producing two new cells, 
or by spore formation in which case the contents of the 
mother cell are formed into a round mass called a spore. 
These spores have the power of withstanding unfavorable 
conditions to a remarkable extent, some being able to 
endure a temperature of 212° F. for several hours. 

Most bacteria require for best growth a moist, warm, 
and nutritious medium such as is furnished by milk, in 

146 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 147 

which an exceedingly varied and active Hfe is possible. 
In nature and in many of the arts and industries, 
bacteria are of the greatest utility, if not indispensable. 
They play a most important part in the disintegration of 
vegetable and animal matter, resolving compounds into 
their elemental constituents in which form they can again 
be built up and used as plant food. In the art of butter 
and cheese making bacteria are indispensable. The to 
bacco, tanning, and a host of other industries cannot 
flourish without them. 

II. MILK FERMENTATIONS. 

Definition. In defining fermentation processes. Conn 
says that, "In general, they are progressive chemical 
changes taking place under the influence of certain 
organic substances which are present in very small 
quantity in the fermenting mass." 

With few exceptions, milk fermentations are the result 
of the growth and multiplication of various classes of 
bacteria. The souring of milk illustrates a typical fer- 
mentation, which is caused by the action of lactic acid 
bacteria upon the milk sugar breaking it up into lactic 
acid. Here the chemical change is conversion of sugar 
into lactic acid. 

The most common fermentations of milk are the fol- 
lowing: 

r Lactic. 

I Normal -{ Curdling and Digesting. 

I Butvric, 



Milk Fermentations -i 



I Butyric, 

Bitter. 

Slimy or Ropy. 
Abnormal... ^ Gassy. 
I Toxic. 
[ Chromogenic. 



148 DAIRY FARMING 

NORMAL, FERMENTATIONS. 

We speak of normal fermentations because milk always 
contains certain classes of bacteria even when drawn and 
kept under cleanly conditions. These fermentations will 
be discussed in the following pages. 

I. LACTIC FERMENTATION. 

This is the most common and by far the most important 
fermentation of milk. Indeed it is indispensable in the 
manufacture of butter of the highest quality. The germ 
causing this fermentation is called Lactici Acidi. It is 
non-spore bearing and has its optimum growth tempera- 
ture between 90° and 98° F. At 40° its growth ceases. 
Exposed to a temperature of 140° for fifteen minutes 
it is killed. 

The souring of milk and cream, as already mentioned, 
is due to the action of the lactic acid bacteria upon the 
milk sugar changing it into lactic acid. Acid is therefore 
always produced at the expense of milk sugar. But the 
sugar is never all converted into acid because the pro- 
duction of acid is limited. When the acidity reaches 
about .9% the lactic acid bacteria are either checked or 
killed and the production of acid ceases. Owing to the 
universal presence of these bacteria it is almost impossible 
to secure milk free from them. 

Under cleanly conditions the lactic acid type of bacteria 
always predominates in milk. When, however, milk is 
drawn under uncleanly conditions the lactic organisms 
may be outnumbered by other species of bacteria which 
give rise to the numerous taints often met with in milk. 

Contradictory as it may seem, the lactic acid bacteria 
are alike friend and foe to the butter maker. Creamery 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 149 

patrons are expected to have milk as free as possible 
from these germs so that it may arrive at the creamery 
in a sweet condition. They are therefore expected to 
thoroughly cool and care for it, not alone to suppress 
the action of the lactic acid bacteria but also that of the 
abnormal species that might have gained access to the 
milk. 

While the acid bacteria are objectionable in milk, in 
cream made into butter they are indispensable. The 
highly desirable aroma in butter is the result of the 
growth of these organisms in the process of cream 
ripening. There are a number of different species of 
bacteria that have the power of producing lactic acid. 

2. CURDL,ING AND DIGESTING FERMENTATION. 

In point of numbers this class of bacteria ranks perhaps 
next to the lactic acid type. Indeed it is very difficult to 
obtain milk that does not contain them. It is not often, 
however, that their presence is noticeable owing to their 
inability to thrive in an acid medium. 

According to bacteriologists most of these bacteria 
secrete two enzymes, one of which has the power of 
curdling milk, the other of digesting it. The former 
has the power of rennet, the latter of trypsin. "As a 
rule," says Russell, "any organism that possesses the 
digestive power, first causes a coagulation of the casein 
in a manner comparable to rennet." 

It is only occasionally when the lactic acid organisms 
jire in a great minority, or when for some reason their 
action has been suppressed, that this class of bacteria 
manfests itself by curdling milk while sweet. The curd 
thus formed differs from that produced by lactic acid in 
being soft and slimy. 



ISO DAIRY FARMING 

Most of the curdling and digesting bacteria are spore 
bearing and can thus withstand unfavorable conditions 
better than the lactic acid bacteria. For this reason milk 
that has been heated sufficiently to kill the lactic acid 
bacteria, will often undergo the undesirable changes 
attributable to the digesting and curdling organisms. 

3. BUTYRIC I^ERMENTATION. 

It was mentioned that many bacteria have the power 
of producing lactic acid but that the true lactic acid fer- 
mentation is probably caused by a single species. So it 
is with the butyric acid bacteria. While a number of 
different organisms are known to produce this acid, Conn 
is of the opinion that the common butyric fermentation 
of milk and cream is due to a single species belonging 
to the anaerobic type. 

The butyric acid produced by these organisms is the 
chief cause of rancid flavors in cream and butter. These 
bacteria are widely distributed in nature, being particu- 
larly abundant in filth. They are almost universally 
present in milk, from which they are hard to eradicate 
on account of their resistant spores. It is on account 
of these spores and their ability to grow in the absence 
of oxygen that the butyric fermentation is often found 
in ordinary sterilized milk from which the air has been 
excluded. 

This class of bacteria has great significance in cream 
ripening and in the keeping quality of butter. In the 
ripening of cream the desirable flavor develops with the 
increase of acidity until the latter has reached .6%. When 
the development of acid goes beyond this, the flavor is 
no longer of the desirable kind but turns rancid as a 
result of the development of the butyric fermentation. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 151 

The butyric fermentation is rarely noticeable during 
the early stage of cream ripening and its subsequent 
development in a highly acid cream is explained by 
Russell as being "probably due, not so much to the pres- 
ence of lactic acid, as to the absence of dissolved oxygen, 
which at this stage has been used up by the lactic acid 
organisms." 

Butter that is apparently good in quality when freshly 
made, will usually turn rancid when kept at ordinary 
temperatures a short time. The quickness with which 
this change comes is dependent largely upon the amount 
of acid present in cream at the time of churning. Butter 
made from cream in which the maximum amount of acid 
consistent with good flavor has been developed, usually 
possesses poor keeping quality. This seems to indi- 
cate that at least part of the rancidity that develops in 
butter after it is made is due to the butyric acid bacteria, 
while light and air, doubtless, also contribute much to 
this end. 

ABNORMAL I'ERMDNTATIONS. 

No trouble needs to be anticipated from these fermenta- 
tions so long as cleanliness prevails in the dairy. The 
bacteria that belong to this class are usually associated 
with filth, and dairies that become infested with them 
show a lack of cleanliness in the care and handling of the 
milk. Since milk is frequently infected with one or 
another of these abnormal fermentations a brief discus- 
sion will be given of the most important. 

I. BITTER FERMENTATION. 

Bitter milk and cream are quite common and there are 
several ways in which this bitterness is imparted : it may 



152 DAIRY FARMING 

be due to strippers' milk and to certain classes of feeds 
and weeds, but most frequently to bacteria. This class 
of bacteria has not yet been studied very thoroughly but 
we know a great deal about it in a practical way. In 
milk and cream in which the action of the lactic acid 
germs has been suppressed by low temperatures, bitter- 
ness due to the development of the bitter fermentation is 
almost certain to be noticeable. When the temperature 
is such as to cause a rapid development of the lactic 
fermentation, the bitter fermentation is rarely, if ever, 
present. It is quite evident from this that the bitter 
organisms are capable of growing at much lower tem- 
peratures than the lactic and that so long as the latter 
are rapidly growing the bitter fermentation is held in 
check. 

This teaches us that it is not safe to ripen cream below 
60° F. The author has found that cream quickly ripened 
and then held at a temperature of 45° for twenty- four 
hours would show no tendency toward bitterness, while 
the same cream held sweet at 45° for twenty- four hours 
and then ripened would develop a bitter flavor. This 
indicates that the lactic acid is unfavorable to the develop- 
ment of the bitter fermentation. 

The bitter germs produce spores capable of resisting 
the boiling temperature. This accounts for the bitter 
taste that often develops in boiled milk. 

2. SI<IMY OR ROPY I^ERMENTATIGN. 

This is not a common fermentation and rarely 
causes trouble where cleanliness is practiced in the dairy. 
The bacteria that produce it are usually found in impure 
water, dust, and dung. These germs are antagonistic to 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 153 

the lactic organisms and for this reason milk infected 
with them sours with great difificulty. 

The action of this class of bacteria is to increase the 
viscosity of milk, which in mild cases simply assumes a 
slimy appearance. In extreme cases, however, the milk 
develops into a ropy consistency, permitting it to be 
strung out in threads several feet long. 

Slimy or ropy milk cannot be creamed and is therefore 
worthless in the manufacture of butter. Such milk should 
not be confused with gargety milk which is stringy when 
drawn from the cow. The bacteria belonging to this class 
are easily destroyed as they do not form spores. 

3. GASSY FERMENTATION. 

This is an exceedingly troublesome fermentation in 
cheese making and is also the cause of much poor flavored 
butter. The gas germs are very abundant during the 
warm summer months but are scarcely noticeable in 
winter. Like the bitter germs, they are antagonistic to 
the lactic acid bacteria and do not grow during the rapid 
development of the latter. They are found most abun- 
dantly in the barn, particularly in dung. 

4. TOXIC FERMENTATIONS. 

Toxic or poisonous products are occasionally developed 
in milk as a result of bacterial activity. They are most 
commonly found in milk that has been kept for some 
time at low temperature, 

5. CHROMOGENIC FERMENTATIONS. 

Bacteria belonging to this class have the power of 
imparting to milk various colors. The most common of 



154 DAIRY FARMING 

these is blue. It is, however, not often met with in dairy 
practice since the color usually does not appear until the 
milk is several days old. The specific organism that 
causes blue milk has been known for more than half a 
century and is called cyanogenous. Another color that 
rarely turns up in dairy practice is produced by a germ 
known as prodigiosis, causing milk to turn red. Other 
colors are produced such as yellow, green, and black, but 
these are of very rare occurrence. 



A o B 



A H 

Microscopic appearance of pure and impure milk. A, Pure milk ; B, after 
standing iu a wash room for a few hours in a dirty dish, showing, besides 
the fat globules, many forms of bacteria. — Moore. 



CHAPTER XX. 

SANITARY MILK PRODUCTION, 

Sanitary Milk Defined. Sanitary milk is milk from 
healthy cows, produced and handled under conditions in 
which contamination from filth, bad odors, and bacteria, 
is reduced to a minimum. 

Importance of Sanitary Milk. The production of 
clean milk is one of the most important subjects that con- 
fronts the American dairyman at the present time. Fur- 
ther improvement in the quality of butter and cheese must 
largely be sought in the use of cleaner milk. With the 
better appreciation by the public of the great nutritive 
value of milk, there opens an unlimited market for it for 
consumption in the raw form. Already we find that milk 
produced under the best sanitary conditions sells for prac- 
tically double that obtained under ordinary, more or less, 
slip-shod conditions. So great is the clamor for cleaner 
milk that any extra efforts expended in producing it are 
certain to be richly compensated. 

The Necessary Conditions for the production of sani- 
tary milk are as follows: (i) Healthy cows; (2) sani- 
tary barn; (3) clean barn yard; (4) clean cows; (5) 
clean milkers; (6) clean milk vessels; (7) clean, whole- 
some feed; (8) pure water; (9) clean strainers; (10) 
dust- free stable air; (11) clean bedding; (12) milking 
with dry hands; (13) thorough cooling of milk after 
milking; (14) sanitary milk room. 

Healthy Cows. The health of the cow is of prime im- 
portance in the production of sanitary milk. All milk 

155 



156 DAIRY FARMING 

from cows affected with contagious diseases should be 
rigidly excluded from the dairy. Aside from the general 
unfitness of such milk there is danger of the disease pro- 
ducing organisms getting into the milk. It has been 
found, for example, that cows whose udders are affected 
with tuberculosis, yield milk containing these organisms. 
The prevalence of this disease among cows at present 
makes it imperative to determine definitely whether or 
not cows are affected with the disease, by the application 
of the tuberculin test. 

Any feverish condition of the cow tends to impart a 
feverish odor to the milk, which should therefore not be 
used. Especially important is it that milk from diseased 
udders, no matter what the character of the disease, be 
discarded. 

Sanitary Barn. Light, ventilation, and ease of clean- 
ing are essential to a sanitary dairy barn. The disinfect- 
ant action of an abundance of sunlight, secured by pro- 
viding a large number of windows, is of the highest im- 
portance. 

Of equal importance is a clean, pure atmosphere, secur- 
ed by a continuous ventilating system. The fact that 
odors of any description are absorbed by milk with great 
avidity, sufficiently emphasises the great need of pure air. 

To permit of easy cleaning, the barn floors and gutters 
should be built of concrete. They should be scrubbed 
daily, and care should be taken to keep the walls and 
ceiling free from dust and cobwebs. The feed boxes must 
also be cleaned after each feed. 

The stalls should be of the simplest construction, to 
afford as little chance for lodgement of dust as possible. 
Furthermore, they should so fit the cows as to cause the 
latter to stand with their hind feet on the edge of the gut- 



MILK AND lis PRODUCTS 157 

ter, a matter of the highest importance in keeping cows 
clean. 

The walls and ceiling should be as smooth as possible. 
Moreover, they should be frequently disinfected by means 
of a coat of whitewash. The latter gives the barn a 
striking sanitary appearance. 

Clean Barn Yard. A clean, well drained barn yard is 
an essential factor in the production of sanitary milk. 
Where cows are obliged to wade in mire and filth, it is 
easy to foretell what the quality of the milk will be. To 
secure a. good barn yard it must be covered with gravel 
or cinders, and should slope away from the barn. If the 
manure is not taken directly from the stable to the fields, 
it should be placed where the cows cannot have access 
to it. 

Clean Cows. Where the barn and barn-yard are sani- 
tary, cows may be expected to be reasonably clean. Yet 
cows that are apparently clean, may still be the means of 
infecting milk to no small degree. When we consider 
that every dust particle and every hair that drops into 
the milk may add hundreds, thousands, or even millions 
of bacteria to it, we realize the importance of taking every 
precaution to guard against contamination from this 
source. 

To keep cows' as free as possible from loose hair and 
dust particles they should be carded and brushed regu- 
larly once a day. This should be done after milking to 
avoid dust. Five to ten minutes before the cow is milked 
her udder and flanks should be gently washed with clean, 
tepid water, by using a clean sponge or cloth. This will 
allow sufficient time for any adhering drops of water to 
drip ofif, at the same time it will keep the udder and flanks 
sufficiently moist to prevent dislodgment of dust particles 



158 DAIRY FARMING 

and hairs at milking time. This practically means that 
the milker must always have one or two cows washed 
ahead. He should be careful to wash his hands in clean 
water after each washing. 

Under ordinary conditions the cow is the greatest 
source of milk contamination. The rubbing of the milker 
against her and the shaking of the udder will dislodge 
numerous dust particles and hairs unless the foregoing 
instructions are rigidly followed. 

Attention should also be given to the cow's switch, 
which should be kept scrupulously clean. The usual 
switching during milking is no small matter in the con- 
tamination of milk when the switch is not clean. 

Clean Milkers. Clothes which have been worn in the 
fields are not suitable for milking purposes. Every milker 
should be provided with a clean, white milking suit, con- 
sisting of cap, jacket and trousers. Such clothes can be 
bought ready made for one dollar ; and, if frequently 
laundered, will materially aid in securing clean milk. 




Fig. 42. Unflushed seam. Fig. 43. Flushed seam. 

Milkers should also wash and dry their hands before 
milking, and, above all, should keep them dry during 
milking. 

Clean Vessels. All utensils used in the handling of 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 159 

milk should be made of good tin, with as few seams as 
possible. Wherever seams occur, they should be flushed 
with solder. Unflushed seams are difficult to clean, and, 
as a rule, afford good breeding places for bacteria. Fig. 
42 illustrates the character of the unflushed seam ; Fig. 43 
shows a flushed seam, which fully illustrates its value. 

Fig. 44 illustrates a modern sanitary milk pail. The 
value of a partially closed pail is evident from the re- 
duced opening, which serves to keep out many of the 
micro-organisms that otherwise drop into the pail during 




Fig. 44. Sanitary Milk Pail. 

milking. While such a pail is somewhat more difficult 
to clean than the ordinary open pail, it is believed that 
the reduced contamination during milking far outweighs 
this disadvantage. 

All utensils used in the handling of milk should be as 
nearly sterile as possible. A very desirable method of 
cleaning them is as follows : 

First, rinse with warm or cold water. Second, scrub 



160 DAIRY FARMING 

with moderately hot water containing some sal soda. 
The washing should be done with brushes rather than 
cloth because the bristles enter into any crevices present 
which the cloth cannot possibly reach. Furthermore, it 
is very difficult to keep the cloth clean. Third, scald 
thoroughly with steam or hot water, after rinsing out the 
water in which the sal soda was used. After scalding, 
the utensils should be inverted on the shelves without 
wiping and allowed to remain in this place until ready 
to use. This will leave the vessels in a practically sterile 
condition. Fourth, if it is possible to turn the inside of 
the vessels to the sun, in a place where there is no dust, 
then it is desirable to expose the utensils during the day 
to the strong germicidal action of the direct sun's rays. 

Clean, Wholesome Feed. Highly fermented and 
aromated feeds, like sour brewers grains and leeks should 
be rigidly withheld from dairy cows when anything like 
good flavored milk is sought. So readily does milk 
absorb the odors of feeds through the system of the ani- 
mal, that even good corn silage, when fed just previous 
to milking, will leave its odor in the milk. When fed 
after milking, however, no objection whatever can be 
raised against corn silage because not a trace of its odors 
are then found in the ijiilk. Aromatic feeds of any kind 
should always be fed after milking. 

Pure Water. Since feeds are known to transmit their 
odors to the milk through the cow, it is reasonable to ex- 
pect water to do the same. Cows should, therefore, never 
be permitted to drink anything but pure, clean-flavored 
water. The need of pure water is further evident from 
the fact that it enters so largely into the composition of 
milk. 

Clean Strainers. Since all milk passes through strain- 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 161 

ers it is of the highest importance to keep them sterile. 
Wire strainers with fine meshes are the most sanitary. 
Several thicknesses of cheese cloth will, however, answer 
the purpose very satisfactorily. Where cloth strainers are 
used they should be placed in boiling water a few minutes 
after being cleaned, and should then be spread out to dry 
in a sunny place as free as possible from dust. 

Straining is frequently done under the illusion that 
so long as it removes all visible dirt the milk has been 
entirely purified. The real harm, however, that comes 
from hairs and dust particles dropping into the milk is 
not so much in the hairs and dust particles themselves as 
in the thousands and millions of germs which they carry 
with them into the milk. These germs are so small that 
no method of straining will remove them. In straining 
milk, therefore, we simply improve its appearance by re- 
moving the coarse, insoluable matter, but leave it entirely 
unchanged so far as the greater evil, the germ content, is 
concerned. Not only does straining not change the germ 
content of the milk in any way, but it also fails to remove 
any dirt which was dissolved in the milk previous to 
straining it. 

Dust=Free Air. Great precaution should be taken not 
to create any dust in the stable about milking time, for 
this is certain to find its way into the milk. Cows should, 
therefore, never be bedded or receive any dusty feed just 
before or during milking. 

Dry roughage, such as hay and corn fodder, alwivs 
contains a considerable amount of dust, and when fed be- 
fore or during milking may so charge the air with dust 
as to make clean milk an impossibility. 

The importance of having the barn air clean should be 



162 



DAIRY FARMING 



evident from the fact that the milk must travel through 
about a foot of air before it reaches the milk pail. 

Clean Bedding. It certainly seems nothing less than 
absurd for a man to sweep and dust and scrub his barn 
with great care and then immediately go to work and 
bring into the barn a great mass of the worst kind of 
dust-laden bedding. Yet- such practices are not at all 
uncommon. Probably one of the filthiest bedding ma- 
terials in common use in some sections is common leaves, 
raked up in the woods after they have been lying upon 
the ground for some weeks. A great deal of dirt always 
adheres to such leaves. 

The stepping around on dirty bedding and lying on it 
a great share of the day, must inevitably result in a dusty 
barn air and in unclean cows. 

Milking With Dry Hands. 
A prolific source of milk con- 
tamination is the milking with 
wet hands. Where the milker 
wets his hands with milk, some 
of it is bound to drip into the 
pail, carrying with it thou- 
sands or millions of bacteria, 
depending upon the degree of 
cleanliness of the milker's 
hands and the cow's udder. 
There is no excuse for the 
filthy practice of wet milking, 
since it is just as easy, if not 
easier, to milk with dry hands. 
Thorough Cooling of Milk After Milking. Imme- 
diately after milking the milk should be removed to a 
milk-room or milk-house with a clean, pure atmosphere. 




MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 163 

where it is aerated and cooled by running it first over an 
aerator and then over a cooler, or by running it over a 
combined aerator and cooler of the type shown in Fig. 45. 
The barrel here shown is filled with cold water just 
previous to milking. By opening the valve at the barrel 
the water flows by gravity into the cooler, entering it at 
the bottom, where the milk receives the full benefit of 
the cold just before it leaves the cooler. The warm 
water discharges at the top. Coolers of this kind will cool 







Fig. 46. Showing the effect of temperature upou bacteria gro^vth. a, a 
single bacterium ; b, its progeny in twenty-four hours in milk kept 
at 50° F.; c, its progeny in twenty-four hours in milk kept at 7u° V. 
(Bui. 26, Storrs, Conn.) 

milk to within five degrees of the temperature of the 
water. 

Immediate and thorough cooling checks the growth of 
the bacteria that have unavoidably gained access to the 
milk, and thus materially prolongs its keeping quality. 
The effect of temperature on germ growth is forcibly 
illustrated in Fig. 46. 

Where milk flows in thin sheets over a cooler it not 



164 DAIRY FARMING 

only cools off very rapidly, but also comes into contact 
with the air sufficiently to make special aeration unneces- 
sary. 

Sanitary Milk Room. Since the milk in flowing over 
the cooler comes in contact with a great deal of air, it is 
of the highest importance that the air in the milk room 
be pure and germ-free. 

The milk room should have a sunny location and should 
have a large window space to admit a maximum amount 
of sunlight. The floor and the first five or six feet of the 
wall should be constructed of concrete, so as to make 
possible easy and thorough cleaning. The remaining por- 
tion of the wall and the ceiling may be calcimined or 
receive some other smooth, hard finish. 

An important part of a milk room is a separate wash- 
room. This room should be provided with shelves, some 
good cleaning substance, as sal soda, good scrub brushes, 
hot and cold water, and, if possible, steam. The shelves 
should be placed near windows where the tin-ware is 
exposed to the disinfectant action of sunlight. 

The drainage from the milk room should be the very 
best, owing to the large quantity of waste and its ferment- 
able nature. 

Fore=MiIk. Where the purest milk is sought, it is de- 
sirable to reject the first stream or two from each teat, as 
these contain many thousands of bacteria. The reason 
for this rich development of germs is found in the favor- 
able conditions provided by the milk in the milk-ducts of 
the teats, to which the bacteria find ready access. 



CHAPTER XXI. 
FARM BUTTER-MAKING. 

CREAMING. 

Cause. Creaming is due to the difference in the speci- 
fic gravity of the fat and the milk serum. The fat being 
Hght and insoluble rises, carrying with it some of the 
other constituents of the milk. The result is a layer of 
cream at the surface. 

Processes of Creaming. The processes by which milk 
is creamed may be divided into two general classes : ( i ) 
That in which milk is placed in shallow pans or long 
narrow cans and allowed to set for about twenty-four 
hours, a process known as natural or gravity creaming; 
(2) that in which gravity is aided by subjecting the milk 
to centrifugal force, a process known as centrifugal 
creaming. The centrifugal force has the effect of increas- 
ing the force of gravity many thousands of times, thus 
causing an almost instantaneous creaming. This force 
is generated in the cream separator. 

ShalIow=Pan Method. The best results with this 
method are secured by straining the milk directly after 
milking into tin pans about twelve inches in diameter 
and two to four inches deep. It is then allowed to remain 
undisturbed at room temperature (60° to 65° F.) for 
twenty-four to thirty-six hours, after which the cream is 
removed either with a nearly flat, perforated skimmer, or 
by allowing it to glide over the edge of the pan after it 
has been carefully loosened along the sides. The aver- 
age loss of fat in the skim milk by this method is 0.7%. 

165 



166 



DAIRY FARMING 




Deep=CoId=Setting Method. The best results with 
this method are secured by using a can Hke the Cooky 
iUustrated in Fig. 47. This can is provided with a cover 
which allows it to be submerged in 
water. It also has a spout at the 
bottom by which the skim milk is 
gently removed, thus preventing the 
partial mixing of cream and skim 
milk incident to skimming with a 
conical dipper. 

The milk is put into the cans di- 
rectly after milking and cooled to 
as low a temperature as possible. 
To secure the best results with this 
method the water should be iced. 
Where this is done the skim milk 
will show only about 0.2% fat. It 
it desirable to allow the milk to set 
twenty-four hours before skimming, though usually the 
creaming is quite complete at the end of twelve or fifteen 
hours. 

Dilution or Aquatic Separators. One of the most 
unsatisfactory methods of creaming is the addition of 
water to the milk. The creaming by this method is done 
in variously constructed tin cans, which the manufacturers 
usually sell under the name of dilution or aquatic sepa- 
rators. Those uninformed about the genuine centrifugal 
separators are often lead to believe that they are buying 
real separators at a low cost when they are investing five, 
ten or fifteen dollars in one of these tin cans, which are 
no more entitled to the term separator than are the com- 
mon shallow pans. The average loss of fat with this 
system of creaming is about i^%. 



Fig. 47.— Cooley Can. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 167 

Centrifugal Method (Hand Separator). Dairies hav- 
ing- four or more cows should cream their milk by the cen- 
trifugal method, the hand separator. The saving of but- 
ter fat with this method soon pays for the cost of a sep- 
arator. Moreover it has the additional advantages over 
the gravity methods of creaming in providing fresh, sweet 
skim milk for feeding purposes, and yielding cream of 
any desired richness. 

Efficiency of Creaming With a Separator. Under 
favorable conditions a separator should not leave more 
than .05% fat in the skim milk by the Babcock test 
There are a number of conditions that affect the efficiency 
of skimnnng and these must be duly considered in making 
a separator test. The following are some of these con- 
ditions : 

A. Speed of bowl. 

B. Steadiness of motion. 

C. Temperature of milk. 

D. Manner of heating milk. 

E. Amount of milk skimmed per houf. 

F. Acidity of milk. 

G. Viscosity of milk. 
H. Richness of cream. 

I. Stage of lactation. (Stripper's milk.) 

A. The greater the speed the more efficient the cream- 
ing, other conditions the same. It is important to see that 
the separator runs at full speed during the separating 
process. 

B. A separator should run as smoothly as a top. The 
slightest trembling will increase the loss of fat in the 
skim milk. Trembling of bowl may be caused by any of 
the following conditions: (i) loose bearings, (2) sepa- 



168 



DAIRY FARMING 



rator out of plum, (3) dirty oil or dirty bearings, (4) un- 
stable foundation, or ( 5 ) unbalanced bowl. 




Kig. 48.— DeLaval Cream Sepa- 
rator. 



Fig. 49.— Simplex Cream Separator. 



C. The best skimming is not possible with any sepa- 
rator when the temperature falls below 60° F. A tem- 
perature of 85° F. is the most satisfactory for ordinary 
skimming. Under some conditions the cleanest skimming 
is obtained at temperatures above 100° F. The reason 
milk separates better at the higher temperatures is that 
the viscosity is reduced. 

D. Sudden heating tends to increase the loss of fat 
in skim milk. The reason for this is that the fat heats 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



169 



more slowly than the milk serum which diminishes the 
difference between their densities. When, for example, 





Fig. 50. — U. S. Cre aiu Separator. 



Fig. 51.- Empire Separato- 



milk is suddenly heated from near the freezing tempera- 
ture to 85° F. by applying live steam, the loss of fat in 
the skim milk may be four times as great as it is under 
favorable conditions. 

E. Unduly crowding a separator increases the loss 
of fat in the skim milk. On the other hand, a marked 
underfeeding is apt to lead to the same result. 

F. The higher the acidity of milk the 
poorer the creaming. With sour milk the 
loss of fat in the skim milk becomes very 
great. 

G. Sometimes large numbers of undesi"- 
able (slimy) bacteria find entrance into milk 
and materially increase its viscosity. This 

Sharpies Cream rcsults ill vcry uiisatisfactorv creaming. 

Separator. - Jo 




170 DAIRY FARMING 

Low temperatures also increase the viscosity of milk 
which accounts for the poor skimming at these tempera- 
tures. 

H. Most of the standard makes of separators will do 
satisfactory work when delivering cream of a richness of 
50%. A richer cream is liable to result in a richer skim 
milk. The reason for this is that in rich cream the skim 
milk is taken close to the cream line where the skim milk 
is richest. 

I. Owing to the very small size of thevfat globules 
in stripper's milk, such milk is more difficult to cream 
than that produced in the early period of lactation. 

Regulating Richness of Cream. The richness of 
cream is regulated by means of a cream screw in the sepa- 
rator bowl. When a rich cream is desired the opening in 
the screw is turned toward the center of the bowl, and for 
a thin cream it is turned away from the center. 

Best Time to Separate Milk. The best results with 
a separator are obtained by running the milk through the 
machine immediately after milking. 

CREAM RIPENING. 

Cream ripening is a process of fermentation in which 
the lactic acid organisms play the chief role. In every-day 
language, cream ripening means the souring of the cream. 
So important is this process that the success or failure of 
the butter maker is largely determined by his ability to 
exercise the proper control over it. In common practice 
the time consumed in the ripening of cream varies from 
twelve to twenty-four hours. 

Object. The ripening of cream has for its prime ob- 
ject the development of flavor and aroma in butter, two 
qualities usually expressed by the word flavor. In addi- 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 171 

tion to this, cream ripening has several minor purposes, 
namely: (i) renders cream more easily churnable; (2) 
obviates difficulties from frothing or foaming in churn- 
"i&; (3) permits a higher churning temperature; (4) 
increases the keeping quality of butter. 

Flavor. This, so far as known at the present time, 
is the result of the development of the lactic fermentation. 
If other fermentations aid in the production of this im- 
portant quality of butter, they must be looked upon as 
secondary, jj^ practice the degree or intensity of flavor 
is easily controlled by governing the formation of lactic 
acid. That is, the flavor develops gradually with the in- 
crease in the acidity of the cream. Sweet cream butter, 
for example, is almost entirely devoid of flavor, while 
cream with an average richness possesses the maximum 
amount of good flavor possible when the acidity has 
reached .6%. 

Churnability. Practical experience shows that sour 
cream is more easily churnable than sweet cream. This 
is explained by the fact that the development of acid in 
cream tends to diminish its viscosity. The concussion pro- 
duced in churning causes the little microscopic fat glob- 
ules to flow together and coalesce, ultimately forming the 
small granules of butter visible in the churn. A high 
viscosity impedes the movement of these globules. It is 
evident, therefore, that anything that reduces the viscosity 
of cream, will facilitate the churning. 

As a rule, too, the greater the churnability of cream the 
smaller the loss of fat in the buttermilk. 

Frothing. Experience shows that ripened cream is 
less subject to frothing or foaming than unripened. This 
is probably due to the reduced viscosity of ripened cream 
and the consequent greater churnability of same. 



172 DAIRY FARMING 

Temperature. Sour cream can be churned at higher 
temperatures than sweet cream with less loss of fat in 
the buttermilk. This is of great practical importance 
since it is difficult to get low enough temperatures for the 
successful churning of sweet cream. 

Keeping Quality. It has been found that butter with 
the best keeping quality is obtained from well ripened 
cream. It is true, however, that butter made from cream 
that has been ripened a little too far will possess very 
poor keeping quality. An acidity of .5% should be placed 
as tlie limit when good keeping quality is desired. 

CONTROL OF THE) RIPENING TROCESS. 

We have learned that the highly desirable flavor and 
aroma of butter are produced by the development of the 
lactic fermentation. In the following discussion we shall 
take up the means of controlling this fermentation and 
treat of the more mechanical side of cream ripening. This 
will include: (i) the ripening temperature; (2) time 
in ripening; (3) agitation of cream during ripening. 

Ripening Temperature. Since the lactic acid bac- 
teria develop best at a temperature of 90° to 98° F. 
it would seem desirable to ripen cream at these tem- 
peratures. But this is not practicable because of the 
unfavorable effect of high temperatures on the body 
of the cream and the butter. Good butter can be pro- 
duced, however, under a wide range of ripening tem- 
peratures. The limits may be placed at 60° and 80°. 
Temperatures below 60° are too unfavorable for the 
development of the lactic acid bacteria. Any check 
upon the growth of these germs increases the chances 
for the development of other kinds of bacteria. But 
it mav be added that when cream has reached an 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 173 

acidity of .4% or more, the ripening may be finished at a 
temperature between 55° and 60° with good results. In 
general practice a temperature between 60° and 70° gives 
the best results. This means that the main portion of the 
ripening is done at this temperature. The ripening is 
always finished at temperatures lower than this. 

Time in Ripening. As a rule quick ripening gives 
better results than slow. The reason for this is evident. 
Quick ripening means a rapid development of the lactic 
fermentation and, therefore, a relatively slow develop- 
ment of other fermentations. Practical experience shows 
us that the growth of the undesirable germs is slow in 
proportion as that of the lactic is rapid. For instance, 
when we attempt to ripen cream at 55° F., a tempera- 
ture unfavorable for the growth of the lactic acid bac- 
teria, a more or less bitter flavor is always the result. 
This is so because the bitter germs develop better at low- 
temperatures than the lactic acid bacteria. 

Stirring Cream. It is very essential in cream ripen- 
ing to agitate the cream frequently to insure uniform 
ripenmg. When cream remains undisturbed for some 
time the fat rises in the same way that it does in milk, 
though in a less marked degree. The result is that the 
upper layers are richer than the lower and will sour less 
rapidly, since the action of the lactic acid germs is 
greater in thin than in rich cream. 

This uneven ripening leads to a poor bodied cream. 
Instead of being smooth and glossy, it will appear coarse 
and curdy when poured from a dipper. The importance 
of stirring frequently during ripening should therefore 
not be underestimated. 

The Use of Sour Milk (Starter). Cream produced 
under cleanly conditions ordinarily contains many kinds 



174 DAIRY FARMING 

of bacteria — good, bad, and indifferent — and to insure a 
large predominance of the lactic acid type in the ripening 
process, it is necessary to reinforce the bacteria of this 
type already existing in the cream by adding large quan- 
tities of them in a pure form, that is, unmixed with un- 
desirable species. Clean flavored sour milk or skim milk 
at the point of curdling is practically a pure culture of 
lactic acid organisms, and the addition of about lo pounds 
of such milk to every lOO pounds of cream will result 
in a better and more uniform quality of butter. 

Amount of Acid to Develop. Cream of average ricn- 
ness should have an acidity of from 0.5 to 0.6 per cent, 
when churned. A rich cream requires less acid than a 
thin cream. 

Sweet and Sour Cream. In small dairies, where only, 
a few churnings are made weekly, care should be taken 
never to mix sweet and sour cream just before churning. 
This always results in a heavy loss of fat in the butter- 
milk on account of the difference in the churnability of 
sweet and sour cream. 

ACID TEST FOR CREAM. 

Butter makers do not find it safe to rely upon their 
noses in determining the ripeness of cream for churning. 
They use in daily practice tests by which it is possible to 
determine the actual amount of acid present. The method 
of using these tests is based upon the simplest form of 
titration, which consists in ncutralidng an acid with an 
alkali in the presence of an indicator which determines 
when the point of neutrality has been reached. 

In the tests for acidity of cream the alkali used is 
sodium hydroxide. This is made up of a definite strength 



MILK ^ND ITS PRODUCTS 



175 



so that the amount of acid can be calculated from the 
amount of alkali used. 

Farrington's Alkaline Tablet Test. In this test the 
alkali is used in a dry tablet form in which it is easily 
handled. Each tablet contains enough alkali to neutralize 
.034 gram of lactic acid. 

Apparatus Used for the Test. This is shown in Fig. 
53, and consists of a porcelain cup, one 17.6 c.c. pipette, 
and a 100 c.c. rubber-stoppered, graduated glass cylinder. 




Fig. 53. Farrington Acid Test Apparatus. 

Making the Solution. The solution is made in the 
graduated cylinder by dissolving 5 tablets in enough water 
to make 97 c.c. solution. When the tablets are dissolved, 
which takes from six to twelve hours, the solution should 
be well shaken and is then ready for use. The solution 
of the tablets may be hastened by placing the graduate in 
a reclining position, as shown in the cut. 



176 DAIRY FARMING 

Making the Test. With the pipette add 17.6 c.c. of 
cream to the cup, then with the same pipette add an equal 
amount of water. Now slowly add of the tablet solution, 
rotating the cup after each addition. As soon as a per- 
manent pink color appears, the graduate is read and the 
number of c.c. solution used will indicate the number of 
hundredths of one per cent of acid in the cream. Thus, 
if it required 50 c.c. of the tablet solution to neutralize the 
cream then the amount of acid would be .50%. From 
this it will be seen that with the Farrington test no calcu- 
lation of any kind is necessary. 

CHURNING. 

Theory. Under the physical properties of butter fat 
it was mentioned that this fat existed in milk in the form 
of extremely minute globules, numbering about 100,000,- 
000 per drop of milk. In rich cream this number is in- 
creased at least a dozen times owing to the concentration 
of the fat globules during the separation of the milk. 

So long as milk and cream remain undisturbed, the fat 
remains in this finely divided state without any tendency 
whatever to flow together. This tendency of the globules 
to remain separate was formerly ascribed to the supposed 
presence of a membrane around each globule. Later re- 
searches, however, have proven the falsity of this theory 
and we know now that this condition of the fat is due 
to the surface tension of the globules and to the dense 
layer of casein that surrounds them. 

Any disturbance great enough to cause the globules to 
break through this caseous layer and overcome their sur- 
face tension will cause them to unite or coalesce, a process 
which we call churning. In the churning of cream this 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 177 

process of coalescing continues until the fat globules have 
united into masses visible in the churn as butter granules. 

CONDITIONS THAT INFLUENCE CHURNING. 

There are a number of conditions that have an impor- 
tant bearing upon the process of churning. These may 
be enumerated as follows : 

1. Temperature. 

2. Charactei: of butter fat. 

3. Acidity of cream. 

4. Richness of cream, 

5. Amount of cream in churn. 

6. Speed of churn. 

7. Abnormal fermentations. 

I. Temperature. To have the miscroscopic globules 
unite in churning they must have a certain degree of soft- 
ness or fluidity, which is greater the higher the tempera- 
ture. Hence the higher the temperature, within certain 
limits, the quicker the churning. To secure the best re- 
sults the temperature must be such as to churn the cream 
in from thirty to forty-five minutes. This is brought 
about in different creams at quite different temperatures. 

The temperature at which cream must be churned is 
determined primarily by the character of the butter fat 
and partly also by the acidity and richness of the cream. 
Most cream is churned between 55 and 60 degrees Fahr. 

Rule for Churning Temperature. A good rule to fol- 
low with regard to temperature is this : When the cream 
enters the churn with a richness of 30 per cent and an 
acidity of .5 to .6 per cent, the temperature should be 
such that the cream will churn in from thirty to forty- 
five minutes. This will insure an exhaustive churning 

and leave the butter in a condition in which it can be 
12 



178 DAIRY FARMING 

handled without injuring its texture. Moreover, the but- 
termilk can then be easily removed, so that when a plug 
is taken with a trier the day after it is churned the brine 
on it will be perfectly clear. 

2. Character of Butter Fat. The fat globules in 
cream from different sources and at different times have 
the proper fluidity to unite at quite different temperatures. 
This is so because of the differences in the relative amount 
of "soft" and "hard" fats of which butter fat is composed. 
When the hard fats largely predominate the butter fat 
will, of course, have a high melting point. Such fat may 
be quite hard at a temperature of 60°, while a butter fat 
of a low melting point would be comparatively soft at 
this temperature. For a study of the conditions that 
influence the hardness of butter fat the reader is referred 
to the discussion of the "insoluble fats" treated in the 
chapter on milk. 

3. Acidity of Cream. This has a marked influence on 
the churning process. Sour or ripened cream churns with 
much greater ease than sweet cream because the acid 
renders it less viscous. The ease with which the fat 
globules travel in cream becomes greater the less the 
viscosity. Ripe cream will therefore always churn more 
quickly than sweet cream. Ripe cream also permits of a 
higher churning temperature than sweet, which is of great 
practical importance where it is difficult to secure low 
churning temperatures. 

4. Richness of Cream. It may naturally be inferred 
that the closer the fat globules are together the more 
quickly they will unite with the same amount of concus- 
sion. In rich cream the globules are very close together, 
which renders it more easily churnable than thin cream. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



179 



The former can therefore be churned in the same length 
of time at a lower temperature than the latter. 

The ideal richness is about 30%. A cream much richer 
than this will stick to the sides of the churn, which re- 
duces the amount of concussion. The addition of water 
to the churn will overcome this stickiness and cause the 
butter to come in a reasonable length of time. It is bet- 
ter, however, to avoid an excessive richness when a ex- 
haustive churning is to be expected. 

5. Amount of Cream in Churn. The best and quick- 
est churning is secured when the churn is 
one-third full. With more or less cream 
than this, the amount of concussion is re- 
duced and the length of time in churning 
correspondingly increased. 

6. Speed of Churn. The speed of the 
churn should be such as to produce the great- 
est possible agitation or concussion of the 
cream. Too high or too low a speed reduces 
the amount of concussion. The proper speed 
for each particular churn must be determined 
by experiment. 

7. Abnormal Fermentations. The slimy 
or ropy fermentation sometimes causes trouble 
in churning by rendering the cream exces- 
sively viscous. Cream from single herds may 
become so viscous as to render churning im- 
possible. 

Dairy Thermometer. One of the essen- 
tials in making good butter is a thermometer 
Dairy like that shown in Fig. 54. It is necessary to 

Thermom- , , 

eter. watch the temperature of the cream dur- 

ing ripening, and to secure uniform and exhaustive 



180 



DAIRY FARMING 



churnings the temperature of the cream must always be 
definitely known before it enters the churn. 

CHURNING OPERATIONS. 

Churns. Of the numerous styles of churns upon the 
market there is none better than the barrel churn. For 
large dairymen, however, who have 50 or more cows, a 
combined churn and butter worker is recommended. Such 
churns, or course, require some form of power to run 
them, and no large dairy is expected to be without power. 

Preparing the Churn. 
Before adding the cream, 
the churn should be scalded 
with hot water and then 
thoroughly rinsed with 
cold water. This will 
"freshen" the churn and 
fill the pores of the wood 
with water so that the 
cream and butter will not 
stick. 

Straining Cream. All 
cream should be carefully 
strained into the churn. 
This removes the possibil- 
ity of white specks in but- 
ter which usually consist of curd or dried particles of 
cream. 

Adding the Color. The amount of color to be added 
depend.s upon the kind of cream, the season of the year 
and the market demands. 

Jersey or Guernsey cream requires much less color 
than Holstein because it contains more natural color. 




r'ig. &J. — Barrel Churn. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 181 

During the summer when the cows are feeding on 
pastures the amount of color needed may be less than 
half that required in the winter when the cows are feed- 
ing on dry feed. 

Different markets demand different shades of color. 
The butter must therefore be colored to suit the market 
to which it is shipped. 

■ In the winter time about one ounce of color is required 
per one hundred pounds of butter. During the summer 
less than one-half ounce is usually sufficient. 

In case the color is not added to the cream (through an 
oversight) it may be added to the butter at the time of 
working by thoroughly mixing it with the salt. When the 
colored salt has been evenly distributed through the butter 
the color will also be uniform throughout. 

Gas in Churn. During the hrst five minutes of churn- 
ing the vent of the churn should be opened occasionally 
to relieve the pressure developed inside. This pressure 
according to Babcock, "is chiefly due to the air within 
becoming saturated with moisture and not to gas set free 
from the cream." 

Size of Granules. Butter should be churned until the 
granules are about half the size of a pea. When larger 
than this it is more difficult to remove the buttermilk and 
distribute the salt. When smaller, some of the fine grains 
are liable to pass out with the buttermilk, and the per- 
centage of water in the butter is reduced. When the 
granules have reached the right size, cold water may be 
added to the churn to cause the butter to float better. Salt 
will answer the same purpose. The churn is now given 
two or three revolutions and the buttermilk drawn off. 

Washing Butter. One washing in which as much 
wat»r is used as there was cream is usuallv sufficient. 



182 DAIRY FARMING 

When butter churns very soft two washings may be ad- 
vantageous. Too much washing is dangerous, however, 
as it removes the deHcate flavor of the butter. 

Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the importance 
of using clean, pure water for washing. Experiments 
have shown that impure water seriously affects the flavor 
of butter. When the water is not perfectly pure it should 
be filtered or pasteurized. 

Salting. It is needless to say that nothing but the best 
grades of salt should be used in butter. This means salt 
readily soluble in water and free from impurities. If there 
is much foreign matter in salt, it will leave a turbid ap- 
pearance and a slight sediment when dissolved in a tumb- 
ler of clear water. 

Object of Salting. Salt adds flavor to butter and ma- 
terially increases its keeping quality. Very high salting, 
however, has a tendency to detract from the fine, delicate 
aroma of butter while at the same time it tends to cover 
up slight defects in the flavor. As a rule a butter maker 
will find it to his advantage to be able to salt his butter 
rather high. 

Rate of Salt. The rate at which butter should be 
salted, other conditions the same, is dependent upon mar- 
ket demands. The butter maker must cater to the mar- 
kets with regard to the amount of salt to use as he does 
with regard to color. 

The rate of salt used does not necessarily determine 
the amount contained in butter. For instance it is per- 
fectly possible under certain conditions to get a higher 
percentage of salt in butter by salting at the rate of one 
ounce per pound than is possible under other conditions 
by salting at the rate of one and a half ounces. This 
means that under some conditions of salting more salt is 
lost than under others. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 183 

The amount of salt retained in butter is dependent 
upon : 

1. Amount of drainage before salting. 

2. Fineness of butter granules. 

3. Amount of butter in churn. 

1. When the butter is salted before the wash water 
has had time to drain away, any extra amount of water 
remaining will wash out an extra amount of salt. It is 
good practice, however, to use a little extra salt and 
drain less before adding it as the salt will dissolve better 
under these conditions, 

2. Small butter granules require more salt than large 
ones. The reason for this may be stated as follows : The 
surface of every butter granule is covered with a thin 
film of water, and since the total surface of a pound of 
small granules is greater than that of a pound of larger 
ones, the amount of water retained on them is greater. 
Small granules have therefore the same efifect as insuffi- 
cient drainage, namely, washing out more salt. 

3. Relatively less salt will stick to the churn in large 
churnings than in small, consequently less will be lost. 

Standaird Rate. The average amount of salt used in 
butter is one ounce per pound. 

WORKING BUTTER. 

Object. The chief object in working butter is to evenly 
incorporate the salt. It also assists in expelling any sur- 
plus moisture. 

How to Work Butter. Where only a small amount 
of butter is made, the butter may be worked with a ladle 
in the churn. For larger amounts it is desirable, however, 
to have a separate worker like that shown in Fig. 56. 



184 



DAIRY FARMING 




Fig. 56.— Butter worker. 



Butter is worked enough when the salt has been evenly 
distributed. Just when this point has been reached can 
not always be told from the appearance of the butter 
immediately after working. But after four or six hours' 

standing the appear- 
ance of white streaks 
or mottles indicates 
that the butter has 
not been sufficiently 
worked. The rule to 
follow is to work the 
butter just enough to 
prevent the appearance 
of mottles. To avoid 
mottles it is best to 
work butter twice. The 
Fig.57.-ButterPriflter. fi^st time, it is worked 




MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 185 

just enough to fairly incorporate the salt. It is then 
allowed to stand six or eight hours, after which white 
streaks are usually noticeable on cutting the butter with 
a string. The second working should cease as soon as 
these streaks or mottles have been removed. 

Difficult Churning. The causes of trouble in churn- 
ing may be enumerated as follows: (i) thin cream, (2) 
low temperature, (3) sweet cream, (4) high viscosity of 
cream, (5) churn too full, (6) too high or too low speed 
of churn, (7) colostrum milk, (8) advanced period of 
lactation, and (9) abnormally rich cream. 

Foaming. This is usually due to churning a thin 
cream at too low a temperature, or to a high viscosity of 
the cream. When caused by these conditions foaming 
can usually be overcome by adding warm water to the 
churn. Foaming may also be caused by having the churn 
too full, in which case the cream should be divided and 
two churnings made instead of one. 

Cleaning Churns. After the butter has been removed, 
the churn should be washed, first with moderately hot 
water, next with boiling hot water containing a little 
alkali, and finally with hot water. If the final rinsing is 
done with cold water the churn dries too slowly, which 
is apt to give it a musty smell. This daily washing should 
be supplemented occasionally with a washing with lime 
water. 

Nothing is equal to the cleansing action of well pre- 
pared lime water and its frequent use vvill prevent the 
peculiar churn odor that is bound to develop in churns 
not so treated. 

The outside of the churn should be thorou<7hly cleaned 
with moderately hot water containing a small amount of 
alkali. 



186 DAIRY FARMING 

Composition of Butter. According to analysis re- 
ported by various experiment stations. American butter 
has the following average composition : 

Per cent. 

Water 13 

Fat 83 

Proteids i 

Salt 3 





Fig. 58.— Butter Ladles. 



Fig. 59.— Butter Carton for 
Wrapping One-pound 
Butter Prints. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

FARM CHEESEMAKING. 

Apparatus and Materials Needed. For dairies from 
lo to 75 cows, the following list is recommended : Steam 
heating cheese vat ; boiler ; i ^ inch press screws ; cheese 
hoops ; horizontal and perpendicular cheese knives ; one 
gallon dipper ; curd scoop ; whisk broom ; lOO cubic 
centimeter graduate ; acid test ; dairy thermometer ; rennet 
extract ; cheese color ; cheese salt ; bandages ; press cloths ; 
cheese cloth circles, and a small scales. 

Ripening the Milk. Place the night's and morning's 
milk in the cheese vat and heat to a temperature of 86° F. 
Next determine the acidity of the milk with the Far- 
rington test described on page 175. (Other tests may be 
used.) If less than 0.18% acid is found, the milk should 
be held to develop more acid. If very sweet it is desirable 
to add one or two pounds of good flavored, sour milk 
(starter, see p. 173) per 100 pounds. A good starter will 
not only hasten the ripening but will improve the flavor 
of the cheese. 

Adding Color and Rennet Extract. As soon as the 
milk shows an acidity of 0.18% to 0.2% add color at the 
rate of one ounce (30 c. c.) per 1,000 pounds of milk and 
thoroughly mix. The amount of color to be used depends 
upon the season of the year, the market demands and the 
kind of milk. After the color is thoroughly incorporated, 
add rennet extract (curdling agent) at the rate of about 
four ounces (120 c. c.) per 1,000 pounds of milk. The 
rennet extract should be diluted with water to the extent 

187 



188 



DAIRY FARMING 



of four or five times its own volume before adding it to 
the milk. After the rennet extract has been thoroughly 
stirred in, the milk should be allowed to stand undis- 




turbed until sufficiently curdled to cut. The tempera- 
ture at the time of adding the rennet should be 86° to 
90° F. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 189 

The amount of rennet extract to be used is determined 
by the quickness with which the cheese is to ripen. If a 
quick ripening cheese is wanted, add 6 ounces per i,ooo 
pounds of milk. If a slow ripening cheese is desired, add 
3 ounces for i,ooo pounds. 

Cheese color and rennet extract are usually placed 
upon the market in liquid form. They are, however, also 
procurable in dry, tablet form in which they are pre- 
ferred for making cheese on a small scale. 

Cutting the Curd. To determine when the curd is 
ready to cut, insert the forefinger, slightly break the curd 
with the thumb, and move the finger in the direction of 
the break and parallel to, and half an inch below, the 
surface. If the whey in the break is clear, the curd is 
ready to cut; if milky, the curdling has not progressed 
far enough. The cutting is done as follows : First cut 
the curd in horizontal layers with the horizontal knife; 
next cut lengthwise and crosswise, alternately, with the 
perpendicular knife until the curd cubes are about three- 
eighths of an inch on a side. 

Warming and Stirring the Curd. Immediately after 
cutting, stir the curd very gently, yet enough to prevent 
the particles from matting together. Run the palm of 
the hand along the sides and bottom of the vat to remove 
any adhering curd. After lo minutes stirring, gradually 
apply heat and bring the temperature to ioo° F. in about 
30 minutes. After this temperature has been reached, 
the curd may be stirred at intervals of 10 minutes until 
ready to remove the whey. It is important to keep the 
temperature as close to 100° F. as possible. 

Drawing Off the Whey. When a bunch of curd is 
pressed between the two hands and on relieving the pres- 
sure the particles fall apart readily, the curd is ready for 



190 DAIRY FARMING 

the removal of the whey. When this firmness is reached, 
the whey should show about 0.17% acid. When the milk 
is set at the proper ripeness, the degree of firmness and 
amount of acid indicated above are reached in about two 
and one-half hours after adding the rennet extract. 

Remove the whey through a faucet or by means of a 
siphon. Place a perforated wooden rack about two 
inches high at one end of the vat and cover it with a 
piece of muslin or cheese cloth. Scoop the curd upon 
the rack and stir. The rack has the advantage of drain- 
ing the curd quickly and also permits the use of hot 
water under the curd to assist in keeping the temperature 
at 98° F., a temperature which should be maintained up 
to within 10 or 15 minutes of salting.' 

If a rather moist, open textured cheese is desired, stir 
30 minutes after the removal of the whey and salt. In 
case a firm, close-textured cheese is wanted, the curd 
must be stirred at frequent intervals for a period of about 
two hours before salting, so as to allow more acid to 
develop. A firm cheese is especially desirable during 
warm weather because of its superior keeping quality. 

When the milk is not of uniformly good quality, and 
when an especially close-textured and uniform cheese is 
desired, the curd should be allowed to mat upon the racks. 
This is accomplished as follows : As soon as removed 
from the whey the curd is stirred a few minutes, spread 
about six inches deep upon the rack, and then allowed 
to mat 15 minutes, after which it is cut into strips about 
8 by 12 inches and then turned. After another 15 min- 
utes, turn again and pile the strips two layers deep; 15 
minutes later turn again and pile three layers deep. 
Usually after one and a half to two hours matting the 
curd tears like chicken breast, which indicates that it is 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 191 

ready to cut into little strips the size of a finger. This 
done, the curd is stirred about 30 minutes and then 
salted. 

Salting. If a fast-curing cheese is desired, salt at 
the rate of 234 pounds of salt per 100 pounds of curd. 
When a slow-ripening cheese is desired salt at the rate of 
2^ pounds. Use only the best grade of salt, and have 
the curd at a temperature of about 90° F. at the time of 
salting. 

Molding and Pressing. Twenty to thirty minutes 
after salting, the curd is ready for the hoops (molds) 
which are prepared as follows : Place a piece of muslin 
in the bottom of the hoop and on top of this a cheese 
cloth circle somewhat less in diameter than the hoop. 
Now place the bandage on the bandager so that when 
the latter is in position the bandage will lap slightly over 
the cheese cloth circle in the bottom of the hoop. Next 
put in the curd. This done, cover with a piece of muslin 
and put on the cover (follower). Apply pressure very 
gradually at the start and do not apply full pressure 
(about 20 lbs. to the square inch) until after 20 to 30 
minutes' pressing. Shortly after full pressure has been 
applied, remove the follower, the muslin cloth, and 
bandager. Turn the projecting bandage over onto the 
cheese. Next place a cloth circle over the top, replace 
the muslin and bandager, and then apply full pressure 
for about 12 hours, when the cheese is taken out of the 
hoop, any folds or irregularities in the bandage are 
straightened out, the cheese is washed off with hot 
water, and put back into the hoop inverted. Press about 
ten hours longer and remove the cheese from the hoop 
and put it into a suitable place for curing. Leave the 
cheese cloth circles on the cheese. 



192 DAIRY FARMING 

Ripening or Curing. After leaving the press the 
cheese should be placed in a cool, damp room with ample 
ventilation. Keep the temperature as near 60° F. as pos- 
sible. The curing or ripening process, which consists of 
the transformation of insoluble into soluble casein, re- 
quires from two to eight months, according to the amount 
of rennet extract and salt used, amount of moisture in 
the cheese, and the temperature at which it is ripened. 
The higher the temperature and moisture, the quicker 
the cheese will ripen. During the first three weeks the 
cheese should be turned and rubbed daily, and if any 
portion of it is not covered with cheese cloth, grease 
should be applied to prevent cracking. If the curing 
room is dry, the cheese should be covered with a thin 
layer of paraffine about a week after it is made, to pre- 
vent excessive loss of moisture. 

Composition. Cured cheddar cheese has the follow- 
ing average composition: Water, 34% ; fat, 36.5% ; pro- 
teids, 26%; and ash, 3.5%. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

MARKETING DAIRY PRODUCTS. 

Marketing Butter. Where it is difficult to keep but- 
ter cool until it reaches the consumer, there is no better 
package in which to market it than the common glazed 
stone jars. These packages are especially to be recom- 
mended for local trade. For fancy trade, one-pound 
prints wrapped in parchment paper are the most popular. 
These prints are made with a small hand printer (Fig.57) 
which should have the manufacturer's monogram cut into 
it. The imprint of the monogram in the butter will serve 
as a guarantee of its genuineness. It is also desirable to 
have some neat lettering on the parchment wrapper, such, 
for example, as Fancy Dairy Butter, Cold Spring Dairy 
Butter, Golden Jersey Butter, etc. Prints must be kept 
cold to preserve their attractive rectangular appearance. 

Where biitter is made in rather large quantity and 
shipped some distance without ice, the regular ten or 
twenty-pound wooden tub is the most satisfactory. These 
tubs should be scalded in hot water and then soaked in 
cold water several hours before using. When treated in 
this way and lined with parchment paper, thoroughly 
soaked in salt brine, butter will keep remarkably well in 
these packages. Other packages are found on the mar- 
ket, such as the Gem fibre parchment lined pasteboard 
boxes, and the Bradley wooden boxes holding from two 
to ten pounds each. 

With the small butter producer the greatest trouble is 
finding a suitable market for his product. It is custom- 
^^ 193 



194 DAIRY FARMING 

ary with most of these producers to sell their butter to 
the country grocer, who, as a rule, makes little discrimi- 
nation in the quality of the butter, the good and the poor 
selling for practically the same price. No producer of 
good butter can afford to market his butter in the coun- 
try stores. Those who have made farm butter-making a 
success have invariably catered to private trade, or have 
sold their butter to well-known butter dealers. A great 
deal of butter could be sold in villages, towns, and cities 
at 25 and 30 cents a pound which would bring only 12 
or 15 cents in the country stores. Seek, therefore, pri- 
vate customers who are willing to pay for a good product, 
and if these are not within easy reach by road, try to 
reach them by rail. Ten pounds of butter may easily be 
sent fifty or sixty miles by express for 25 cents. Twenty 
pounds may be sent for about 30 cents ; and it is possi- 
ble to send fifteen and twenty-pound packages 150 miles 
for 50 cents. It is certainly a business proposition rather 
to pay 3 or even 4 cents a pound expressage than to lose 
10 or 15 cents a pound by selling it to the country grocer. 

Marketing Milk and Cream. Next to cleanliness, a 
low temperature is of the greatest importance in market- 
ing either milk or cream. The temperature should be 
reduced to 45° F. or below as soon as possible after 
milking. This can be accomplished by first running cold 
water through a cooler like that shown in Fig. 45, or by 
using a combined uniced water and iced water cooler in 
which the cooling is accomplished in one operation. It 
is a matter of economy first to cool milk to as low a tem- 
perature as possible with uniced water. 

If intended for retail trade, the milk and cream should 
be bottled immediately after cooling, using bottles like 
that shown in Fig. 62. If cream is to be shipped in 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



195 



bulk for manufacture into ice cream and other uses, it 
should be put into insulated shipping cans like that shown 
in Fig. 6i. This can has a heavy layer of felt between 
the inner, tin surface and the outer, wooden jacket, which 
makes it possible to maintain a low temperature for a 
long time. The can is provided with two covers, one of 





Fig. 61.— Insulated Cream Can. 



/O BE WASH^'' 
'^^D RETURNED 



Fig. 62.— Milk and Cream Bottle. 



which can be pushed down to the level of the cream to 
prevent churning. 

The Most Profitable Market. Many milk producers 
are so situated as to make it possible for them to patron- 
ize a creamery or a cheese factory, or to sell milk and 
cream for retail purposes. To those so situated the ques- 
tion naturally arises, what method of disposal will yield 
the greatest returns ? In general this may be decided from 



196 DAIRY FARMING 

a calculation as follows, using lOO pounds of 4% milk 
as a basis of calculation : 

One hundred pounds of 4% milk will make 4 2-3 
pounds of butter, which, at 25 cents per pound, is worth 
$1.17. The same milk will make two gallons of 25% 
cream, which, at $1.00 per gallon, is worth $2.00. If 
sold as milk at 6 cents per quart, the 100 pounds of milk 
will be worth $2.80 (a quart of milk weighs 2.15 pounds) ; 
and if made into cheese at 10 cents per pound the milk 
will be worth $1.00. 

At the prices stated, the returns are greatest when the 
milk is retailed by the quart, but it should be remembered 
that this leaves no skim-milk for feeding purposes. The 
skim-milk also contains nearly all of the fertilizing con- 
stituents which are lost to the producer when retailing 
milk. Moreover in selling milk and cream for retail pur- 
poses the extra labor and cost in cooling and handling 
must be considered. In this connection it may also be 
stated that skim-milk has practically twice the feeding 
value of whey. 

Standard Weight of a Gallon of Milk and Cream. 
Milk of average quality weighs 8.6 pounds per gallon. 
The weight of a gallon of cream varies with its richness. 
The richer the cream the lighter. Cream testing from 25 
to 30% fat has practically the same specific gravity as 
water and therefore weighs 8.35 pounds, the weight of 
a standard gallon of water. Cream testing higher will 
weigh less, and that testing lower will weigh more than 
8.35 pounds per gallon. 

Standardizing Milk and Cream. This means bring- 
ing milk and cream to a definite percentage of butterfat. 
If the milk and cream are too low in fat, extract skim- 
milk or add cream until the desired richness is reached. If 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 197 

too rich, add skim-milk or extract cream. It is desirable 
both from the standpoint of the consumer and the pro- 
ducer to have all milk and cream standardized. 

Formulas for Standardizing Milk and Cream. 

Problem I : The producer contracts to deliver 450 
pounds of milk testing 4.0% fat. His milk as it comes 
from the herd tests 4.3%. How much skim-milk must 
he add to this to reduce it to 4.0% ? 

Formula : X = f — 7=, — I — A, in which 



(^) 



X = No. lbs. skim-milk to be added. 
A = No. lbs. original milk. 
B =^ test of original milk. 
C = test desired. 
Substituting we get, 

X^/45oX«\_ 450 = 33.75 lbs. 



( 450 X 4-3 \ 
4.0 J 



Problem II : Suppose that the 450 pounds of milk 
tested 4.0% and it is desired to raise it to 4.5% by ex- 
tracting skim-milk ; the amount of skim-milk to be ex- 
tracted is determined from the following formula : 

(^) 

skim-milk to be extracted, and A, B, and C are the same 
as in the preceding formula. 
Substituting we get, 



X = A— f C' 1 , in which X= No. lbs. of 



X = 450-(iS2^2) = 5olbs. 



The test of cream can be raised or lowered in the same 
way, by the use of the preceding two formulas. 



198 



DAIRY FARMING 



When it is desired to standardize milk or cream by 
using milks or creams of different richness, the follow- 
ing method recommended by R. A. Pearson is the sim- 
plest : 

Draw a square with two diagonals, as shown below. 
At the left hand corners place the tests of the milks or 
creams to be mixed. In the center place the richness 
desired. At the right hand corners place the differences 
between the two numbers in line with these corners. 
The number at the upper right hand corner represents 
the number of pounds of milk or cream to use with 
the richness indicated in the upper left hand corner. Like- 
wise the number at the lower right hand corner repre- 
sents the number of pounds of milk or cream to use, with 
the richness indicated in the lower left hand corner. 

Example : How many pounds each of 30% cream 
and 3.5% milk required to make 25% cream? 




21.5, the difference between 3.5 and 25, is the number 
of pounds of 30% cream needed ; and 5, the difference 
between 25 and 30, is the number of pounds of 3.5% 
milk needed. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



i99 



The Value of Advertising. To secure fancy prices 
for dairy products, it is necessary in the first place to have 
products of a superior quality. In addition, the particu- 
lar merits possessed by the products must be forcibly 
brought to the attention of the consumers. Here is where 
advertising counts as in any other business. 

If the milk is produced in clean, ventilated, white- 
washed stables, and from cows which are clean and reg- 
ularly tested for tuberculosis, and if, in addition, all this 
is certified to by a competent inspector, an increase in 
prices and patronage is certain to follow. The majority 
of consumers in the city have little conception of the 
average conditions under which milk is produced, and 
for this reason the man who is producing milk under the 
best sanitary conditions will find it highly profitable to 
place in contrast before his customers vivid pictures of 
the conditions that yield average milk and those that yield 
sanitary milk. 




Fig. 63.— Box for Carrying Print Butter. Fig. 64.— Box for Carrying Print Butter. 



200 



DAIRY FARMING 




Fig. 65. — Jacketed Can for Shipping Cr earn. 




Fig. 66.— Milk Can. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 



MACHINE MILKING. 



Recent results secured by experiment stations and nu- 
merous large dairymen indicate that the milking machine 
will be an important factor in future dairying. The tes- 
timonials from these sources show that machines milk 
fully as satisfactorily as average hand milkers; and 
since one attendant can milk four to six cows at the 
same time, there is a material saving in labor, besides 
making labor more agreeable. Moreover cleaner milk 
is possible with machine milking. 

Principle of Operation. Milking by machine is ac- 
complished by suction similar to that produced by a suck- 
ing calf. The suction 
is intermittent and is 
created by producing 
a partial vacuum in a 
system of pipes to 
which the milking- 
machines are attached 
during milking. 

Apparatus. The 
necessary apparatus 
for machine milking 
consists of a milker, 
which includes a tin 

pail, teat cups, etc. ; a vacuum pump ; some form of 
power ; a vacuum reservoir ; two vacuum gauges ; a safety 

201 




Fig. 67. Milking Machine in operation. 



202 DAIRY FARMING 

valve; and about 150 feet of gas pipes. Each machine 
milks two cows. 

Cost of Apparatus. The following may be considered 
an approximate estimate of the cost of a milking outfit 
for about 30 cows: Two milkers, $180; vacuum pump, 
$50; vacuum reservoir, including two vacuum gauges 
and a safety valve, $35 ; a two horse power gasoline 
engine, $85 ; and pipes and piping, $50 ; The cost of 
pipes depends largely upon the distance of the power 
from the barn. It is not necessary to have the power in 
the barn or even near it. (See Chapter on Farm Power.) 

Operating Machine. When ready to begin milking 
start the vacuum pump and place a milker between two 
cows and open valve on main vacuum pipe. Bend over 
teat cups and attach one by one to one cow and then 
proceed to do the same with the other. Similarly attach 
one or two more milkers, so as to keep four to six cows 
milking at the same time. A short glass tube at the ma- 
chine shows when the milking is completed. 

The mouthpieces on the teat cups must be of a size 
to correspond with the size of the teats. They must be 
neither too small nor too large. It is important, also, 
that the piping system be kept air tight and free from 
moisture. 

Details concerning the installation and operation of 
the machines may be had for the asking by writing to 
the manufacturers. 



APPENDIX. 

Period of Gestation. This refers to the time which 
elapses between conception and calving. The average 
period of gestation of a cow is 283 days. 

Frequency of Heat. As a rule non-pregnant cows 
will come in heat every 21 days. The period of heat lasts 
from 2 to 3 days. 

Metric System of Weights and Measures. This 
system was devised by the French people and has very 
extensive application wherever accuracy in weights and 
measures is desired. Some of its equivalents in ordinary 
weights and measures are given in the following table : 



Ordinary weights and measures. 


Equivalents in metric system. 


1 ounce (av ) 


28 35 grams. 
9464 liter. 


1 quart 


1 pallon ■. 


3 7854 liters 


1 fluid ounce 


29.57 cubic centimeters (c.c.) 
0.4536 kilogram. 
64.8 mUligrams. 


1 pound (av.) 

1 grain 


1 inch 


1 foot •. 


3048 meter 







ADDRESSES OF DAIRY CATTLE BREEDERS* ASSOCIATIONS. 



Breed. 


Secretary. 


Postofflce. 




J. J. Hemingway 

Wm. H. Caldwell 

F. L. Houghton 


8 W I7th St New York 


Guernsey 


N. Y. 


Holstein-Friesian 

Ayrshire 


Brattleboro, Vt. 









203 



204 



DAIRY FARMING 



Rations According to Yield of Milk. The Connec- 
ticut (Storrs) standard rations for varying yields of milk 
are shown in the following table : 

TABLE — FEEDING STANDARDS. 





Live 

weight, 
pounds. 


Daily, per 1,000 pounds of live weight 


When giving 
daily. 


Total 
dry mat- 


Digestible nutrients, pounds. | 








Nutritive 






ter, 
pounds. 


Protein. 


Carbohy- 
drates. 


Fat. "^^^lo- 


10 20 lbs. milk. 


700-950 


20 22 


2.0 


10 12 


0.3 5 1 


6.0 


20-25 " 


700-950 


21-23 


2 3 


10-12 


0.4 0.6 1 


5.3 


2.1-30 ■' 


700 950 


21-23 


2.6 


10 12 


0.4-0.6 1 


4.7 


30 35 " 


700 950 


22-24 


2.9 


11-13 


0.5 7 1 


4.6 


35-40 " 


700 950 


22 24 


3 2 


11-13 


0.5-0 7 1 


4.2 


10-L'O " 


950-1100 


22 24 


2.3 


12-14 


0.4 6 1 


6.1 


20 25 " 


950-1100 


22 2h 


2.6 


12-14 


5 7 1 


5.5 


25-30 " 


950-1100 


23 25 


2.9 


12-14 


0.5 0,7 1 


5.0 


30-35 " 


9.i0-1100 


24 26 


3 2 


13 15 


6 0.8 1 


4 9 


35-JO " 


i. 50-1 100 


24 26 


3.5 


13-15 


0.6 0.8 1 


4.4 



Scale of Points for Judging Butter. Butter is 
judged commercially on the basis of 45 points for flavor, 
25 for texture, 15 for color, 10 for salt, and 5 for package, 
total 100. 

Scale of Points for Judging Cheese. Cheese, as a 
rule, is judged commercially on the basis of 45 points for 
flavor, 30 for texture, 10 for salt, 10 for color, and 5 for 
appearance, total 100. 

Milk Solids. The solids of milk include everything 
but the water. If a sample of milk be kept at the boiling- 
temperature until all the water is evaporated, the dry, 
solid residue that remains constitutes the solids of milk. 
It is convenient to divide the solids into two classes, one 
including all the fat, the other all the solids which are not 
fat. In referring, therefore, to the different solids of 
milk, we speak of the "fat" and the "solids-not-fat" 
which, together, constitute the "total solids." 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



205 



Relationship of Fat and Solids=not=Fat. In normal 
milk a fairly definite relationship exists between the fat 
and the solids-not-fat. For example, milk rich in fat is 
likewise rich in solids-not-fat. On the other hand, milk 
poor in fat is also poor in solids-not-fat. Hence the jus- 
tice of paying for milk, delivered to cheese factories, on 
the butterfatjDasis. See table on page 133. 

Composition of Cream. Cream contains all the con- 
stituents found in milk, though not in the same proportion. 
The fat may vary from 8% to 68%. As the cream grows 
richer in fat it becomes poorer in solids-not-fat. Rich- 
mond reports the following analysis of a thick cream : 

Per cent. 

Water 39.37 

Fat 56.09 

Sugar 2.29 

Proteids 1.57 

Ash 38 

Capacity of Cylindrical Siloes. The approximate 
capacity of cylindrical siloes for well-matured corn silage 
is shown in the following table : 

TABLE — CAPACITY OF CYLINDRICAL SILOES, TONS.* 











Inside diameter of silo, feet. 








Depth of silo, feet. 


10 


12 


14 

51 
55 
59 
62 
66 
70 
74 
78 
83 
88 
93 
96 
101 


15 

59 
63 
67 
72 
76 
81 
85 
90 
95 
100 
105 

no 

115 


16 

67 
72 
77 
82 
87 
90 
97 
103 
108 
114 
119 
125 
131 


18 

85 
91 
97 
103 
110 
116 
123 
130 
137 
144 
151 
158 
166 


20 

105 
112 
120 
128 
135 
143 
153 
16(t 
169 
178 
187 
195 
205 


21 

115 

133 
132 
141 
149 
158 
168 
177 
186 
196 
206 
215 
226 


22 

127 
13.1 
14?. 
154 

ie4 

173 
184 
194 
204 
215 
226 
236 
248 


23 

1''8 
148 
158 
169 
179 
190 
201 
212 
223 
235 
247 
258 
271 


24 

151 

161 
172 
181 
195 
206 
219 
231 
243 
265 
269 
382 
295 


25 

163 
175 
187 
199 
212 
224 
237 
251 
264 
278 
293 
305 
320 


26 


20 


26 
28 
30 
32 
31 
36 
38 
40 
42 
45 
47 
49 
51 


38 
40 
43 
46 
49 
52 
55 
58 
61 
64 
68 
70 
73 


177 


21 


189 


22 


9m 


23 ...'. 


216 


24 


229 


25 


243 


26 


257 


27 


271 


28 


285 


29 


300 


30 


315 


31 


330 


32 


316 







♦From Modern Silage Methods. 



206 . DAIRY FARMING 

Pasteurization of Mil,k. Where no ice is available, 
the keeping quality of milk may be materially prolonged 
by a process of heating and cooling known as pasteuriza- 
tion. This process consists in exposing milk to a tem- 
perature of about 150 degrees F. for thirty minutes, after 
which it is immediately cooled to the lowest temperature 
possible with water. This treatment destroys practically 
all of the bacteria in milk and thus not only materially in- 
creases its keeping quality, but also renders it free from 
harmful or disease-producing bacteria. 

Definition of Technical Terms. A list of technical 
terms not specially defined in the text is presented be- 
low : 

Albuminoids. — Substances rich in albumen, like the 
white of an egg, which is nearly pure albumen. 

Anaerobic. — Living without free oxygen. 

Centrifugal Force. — That force by which a body mov- 
ing in a curve tends to fly off from the axis of motion. 

Chemical Composition. — This refers to the elements or 
substances of which a body is composed. 

Colloidal. — Resembling glue or jelly. 

Concussion. — The act of shaking or agitating. 

Cubic Centimeter (c. c). — See metric system p. 203. 

Emulsion. — A mixture of oil (fat) and water contain- 
ing sugar or some mucilaginous substance. 

Enzymes. — Unorganized ferments, or ferments that do 
not possess life. 

Fibrin. — A substance which at ordinary temperatures 
forms a fine network through milk which impedes 
the rising of the fat globules. 

Foremilk. — The first few streams of milk drawn from 
each teat. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 207 

Galactase. — An unorganized ferment in milk which di- 
gests casein. 
Mammary Gland. — The organ which secrets milk. 
Meniscus. — A body curved like a first quarter moon. 
Mii,K Serum. — Milk free from fat. Thus, skim-milk is 

nearly pure milk serum. 
Neutral. — Possessing neither acid nor alkaline prop- 
erties. 
Non-conductor. — A material which does not conduct 

heat or cold, or only so with great difficulty. 
Osmosis. — The tendency in fluids to dififrfse or pass 

through membranes. 
Rennet Extract. — The curdling and digesting principle 

of calf stomach. 
Secretion. — The act of separating or producing from the 

blood by the vital economy. 
Specific Gravity. — The weight of one body as compared 

with an equal volume of some other body taken as 

a standard. 
Spore.— The resting or non-vegetative stage of certain 

kinds of bacteria. 
Sterilization. — The process of destroying all germ life 

by the application of heat near 212° F. 
Strippers' Milk. — The milk from cows far advanced in 

the period of lactation. 
Strippings. — The last few streams of milk drawn from 

each teat. 
Suspension. — The state of being held mechanically in a 

liquid, like butter fat in milk. 
Tuberculin. — A sterile glycerine extract of the growth 

products of the tubercule bacillus. 
Vacuum. — Space devoid of air. 
Vegetatin'E Bacteria. — Those bacteria that are in an 

actively growing condition. 



208 DAIRY FARMING 

Viscosity. — The quality of being sticky ; stickiness. 
Volatile;. — The state of wasting away on exposure to the 

atmosphere. Easily passing into vapor, like ammonia. 
Whole Milk. — Milk which has neither been watered nor 

skimmed. 



INDEX. 



Page 

Abortion 1^3 

Acid, measures 139 

Acid, test 1'<'4 

Afterbirth, retention of 116 

Ailments of cattle 110 

Air of stable 161 

Albumen of milk 129 

Ammonia fixers 103 

Appendix 203 

Ash of milk 129 

Ayrshire cattle 31 

characteristics of 32 

Babcock test l-'5 

apparatus for 13 1 

method of making 140 

method of reading 141 

pointers on making 142 

principle of 135 

sample for 135 

Babcock testers 136 

Bacteria, discussion of 146 

Baker tie 93 

Barn, dairy 86 

Barn yard, clean 157 

Barrenness 119 

Bedding for cows 162 

Bidwell stall 90 

Bitter fermentation 151 

Bloat 11» 

Bloody milk 120 

Breeding, purity of 14 

Breeding rack 77 

Building up herd 20 

Bull, selection of 17 

feeding of 74 

management of 74 

pedigree of 17 

pen 75 

prepotency of 18 

type of • 18 



Page 

Butter boxes 199 

cartons 186 

composition of 186 

Butterfat 125 

composition of 126 

method of estimating 60 

physical properties of 125 

production H 

testing for 135 

Buttermaking 165 

Butter prints 184 

Butter, working of 183 

Butyric fermentation 150 

Calf, care of 85 

prenatal development of.... 82 

rearing 82 

scours 115 

stanchions 83 

Calves, feeding of 83 

selection of 2.3 

weaning of 82 

Carbohydrates 34 

Cattle, breeds of dairy 25 

Cheese, amount of color in 187 

amount of rennet in 187 

composition of 192 

192 



curing 



Cheesemaking 187 

ripening milk for 187 

Chromogenic fermentations 153 

Colostrum milk 130 

Composite sample jar 63 

Conformation of cows 11 

of bulls 18 

Cooler, milk and cream 162 

Cooley can 166 

Corn for silage 52 

when to cut 56 

Cow, dairy, points of 12 

Cow stalls and ties ■ • . 89 



209 



210 



INDEX 



Page 

Cows, buying 2-t 

clean 157 

drying off 79 

evolution of 9 

feeding of 33 

gestation period of 203 

health of 16 

management of 73 

milk organs of 13 

points of 12 

selection of 12 

type of 11 

Cream bottle 105 

cans 195, 200 

Cream, churnability of 171 

churning, temp, of 172 

composition of 205 

cooling 194 

frothing of 171 

marketing of 194 

ripening 170 

scales 140 

separators 167 

stirring 173 

Creaming, centrifugal 105 

deep, cold 160 

dilution, method of 166 

efficiency of 167 

gravity 165 

methods of 165 

shallow pan 165 

Curdling fermentation 149 

Dairy barn * . . . 86 

ground plan for 87 

method of constructing 88 

ventilation of 96 

Dairy calf, rearing of 82 

Dairy cattle associations 203 

Dairy herd, building up of 20 

starting of 22 

Dairy house 98 

Dairy rations 37, 204 

Dairy temperament 12 

Dairy type 11 

Dairying, direct profits in 7 

indirect profits in 8 

winter 73 



Page 

Dehorning SO 

De Laval separator 168 

Diseases of cattle 110 

Disinfectants Ill 

Drown stall 90 

Dry matter, definition of 34 

Empire separator 160 

Escutcheon l-I 

Ether extract 34 

Farm buttermaking 165 

Farrington acid test 175 

apparatus for 175 

method of making 176 

Fats insoluble 127 

soluble 128 

FeeH, estimating cost of 66 

Feeding calves 83 

Feeding cows 33 

according to flow 45 

before and after calving. . . . 42 

frequency of 41 

practice of 41 

principles of 3.'> 

Feeding silage 43 

Feeding standards 36 

Feeding tables 46 

Feeds, composition of 33 

digestibility of 35 

palatability of 35 

succulence of 35 

Foaming of cream 1.85 

Garget 114 

Gasolene engine 107 

Gassy fermentation 152 

Gestation, period of 203 

Glassware for Babcock test 136 

Grubs 121 

Guernsey cattle 27 

characteristics of 28 

Gutters for barn 95 

Hand separators 167 

Hay loft 07 

Health of cows 16 

Heat, frequency of 203 



INDEX 



211 



Page 

Heifers, age to breed 78 

Herd management 73 

Herd records 60 

Holstein-Friesian cattle 29 

characteristics of 30 

Hoven 119 

Ice house 100 

Indigestion 110 

Inversion of womb 117 

Jersey cattle • • • • 25 

characteristics of 26 

Judging butter 204 

Judging cheese 204 

King ventilator 95 

Lactic fermentation 148 

tfice, treatment for 121 

Mangers 94 

Manure 101 

carrier 104 

fermentation of 103 

leaching of 102 

losses in 102 

Marketing dairy products 193 

Metric system 203 

Milk, colostrum 130 

bottle ..' 195 

can 200 

cooling 162 

creaming of 165 

fever 112 

fermentations 146 

house 99 

marketing of 194. 

organs 13 

pail, sanitary 159 

physical properties of 123 

quality of 132 

record sheet 62 

records 60 

room, sanitary 164 

sanitary 155 

scales 61 

secretion 130 

straining of 160 



Page 

Milk sugar 120 

testing 135 

vessels 158 

wells 12 

Milkers, value of good 71 

effect of change of 69 

clean 158 

Milking 68 

clean 70 

fast vs. slow 70 

frequency of 71 

machines 201 

cost of 201 

operation of 202 

principle of 201 

treatment of cow during. ... 68 
with dry hands 158 

Nutrition ratio 39 

Palatability of feeds 35 

Pedigree I'J 

Pelvic region 13 

Power on farm 10b 

possibilities for 107 

Prepotency defined 18 

Principle of Babcock test 135 

Principles of feeding 33 

Protein, definition of 34 

Purgatives HI 

Purity of breeding 14 

Quality of milk, variations in.. 132 
QuaraiTtining HO 

Ratio, nutritive 39 

Ration, definition of 38 

Rations, method of calculating. . 38 

standard 37 

Ropy fermentation 152 

Salt for stock 44 

Samplers, milk 64 

Sampling milk 64 

Sanitary barn 156 

Sanitary milk 155 

Sanitary milk pail 159 

Scales, milk 61 



212 



INDEX 



Page 

Secretion of milk 130 

Selection of cows 11 

Selection of sires 17 

Self-sucking cows 121 

Shallow pan creaming 165 

Sharpies separator 109 

Silage 52 

advanta,<;es of ,. 52 

machinery, cost of 59 

truck 58 

Silo filling 57 

Silo, Gurler 55 

Silos 52 

capacity of 205 

construction of 53 

cost of 59 

location for 53 

size of 53 

Slimy fermentation 152 

Stalls 89 



Page 

Stalls, size of ■. 94 

Standardizing milk and cream.. 190 

formulas for 197 

Stringy milk 120 

Teat troubles 120 

Technical terms, definition of. . .206 

Thermometer, dairy. 179 

Test bottles. .• 138 

Testing 135 

Toxic fermentation 153 

Tuberculin test. 117 

Tuberculosis 117 

Urine, saving of 101 

Ventilation of barn 96 

\'entilation. King system 95 

Warbles 121 

Water for stock 44 



JUL 39 1907 



